LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



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THE 



ECLECTIC MANUAL 



OF 



METHODS 



FOR THE ASSISTANCE OF TEACHERS 



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NOV 23 \mjA I 



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VAN ANTWERP, BRAGG & CO. 

C INC INN A TI NEW YORK 



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Copyright 

1885 
Van Antwerp, Bragg & Co. 



ECLECTIC PRESS '. 
VAN ANTWERP, liRAGG & CO. 











CONTENTS. 




:i^' 






-a 




PAGE 




Introduction 


5 




J^BAD/JVG. 






Chapter I, — Auxiliary Studies 


. . II 




" II. — Methods of Teaching . 


24 




" III. — McGuffey's Primer 


32 




" IV. — McGuffey's First Reader 


41 




" V. — General Remarks 


57 




" VI. — McGuffey's Readers. — Concluded 


. . 69 



SPELLING. 

Chapter VII. — McGuffey's Spelling-book 



85 



WRITING. 

Chapter VIII. — Eclectic System of Penmanship 



93 



ARITHMETIC. 

Chapter IX. — First Year 
" X. — Second Year . 

** XI. — Arithmetic, — Concluded 



105 
115 
131 



GEOGRAPHY. 



Chapter XII. — The Eclectic Elementary Geography 
" XIII. — The Eclectic Complete Geography 



145 
162 



(iii) 



IV CONTENTS. 



GRAMMAR. 

PAGE 



Chapter XIV. — Harvey's Elementary Grammar and Com- 
position 177 

" XV. — Harvey's Revised Practical Grammar . 188 



HISTORY. 



Chapter XVI. — The Eclectic History of the United States 207 
" XVII. — The Eclectic History. — Appendix . . 227 



PHYSIOLOGY. 

Chapter XVIII.— The Eclectic Physiology . . . .249 



THE 



ECLECTIC MANUAL. 



IN TR on UCTION. 

THIS Manual is the outgrowth of numerous requests 
from young and inexperienced teachers of country 
district schools in nearly every part of the United States 
for assistance in their work. While it is therefore ad- 
dressed particularly to this class, it is hoped that it con- 
tains many suggestions which will prove useful, also, to 
teachers generally. 

During the past few years, there has been a strenuous 
effort made in many states to evolve some degree of 
symmetry and order out of the chaos in which the un- 
graded schools have heretofore existed. Superintendents 
have held meetings and discussed methods and the 
proper use of text-books ; they have also, in many cases, 
issued manuals to their teachers, setting forth the results 
of the conferences, and making many valuable sugges- 
tions as to the future conduct of the schools. These 
manuals, although frequently differing in unessential 
details, agree in recommending a definite and uniform 

(5) 



6 THE ECLECTIC MANUAL. 

course of study, and, as far as may be possible, a uni- 
formity of text-books in classes. 

Wherever these suggestions of the superintendents 
have been followed, the schools without exception have 
been improved in character. But many difficulties con- 
front the inexperienced teacher, regarding which he 
receives no aid from the superintendent's manual. Not 
the least of these, perhaps, is owing to the fact that he 
does not understand how to use his text-books to the 
best advantage. In order to use a book properly, a 
teacher must know what the aim of the book is ; on 
what plan it has been constructed, and in conformity with 
what method ; how far its text is merely suggestive, etc. 
As the Eclectic Educational Series is used very generally 
in the district schools throughout the country, the Pub- 
lishers feel themselves called upon to aid in supplying 
such information in regard to these books and their 
use as will assist the teacher in securing the best pos- 
sible results. With this object in view, the following 
books of the Eclectic Educational Series have received 
full and careful treatment : McGuffey's Revised Eclectic 
Primer, Readers, and Spelling-Book ; the New Eclectic 
Penmanship; Ray's New Primary, Intellectual, and Prac- 
tical Arithmetics ; the New Eclectic Elementary and 
Complete Geographies ; Harvey's Revised Elementary 
Grammar and Composition, Harvey's Revised English 
Grammar ; the Eclectic History of the United States ; 
the Eclectic Physiology and Hygiene. 



INTR on UCTION. y 

The several books mentioned have been prepared in 
conformity with those modern methods of teaching 
which are recognized by the most advanced instructors 
as the best. It has been the endeavor to show in this 
Manual wliat the method is for each subject, and how it 
should be applied. Suggestions as to details have been 
given wherever it is felt they will be of service, but they 
must be viewed in the proper light, as mere suggestions. 
For example, it is by no means desired to convey the 
impression that in our opinion the plan suggested for 
conducting the opening lesson in McGuffey's Revised 
Eclectic First Reader is the o?ily proper plan for conduct- 
ing that lesson. The same is true of all similar sugges- 
tions : it is not intended that they shall be followed 
servilely, but simply be accepted as hints. Each teacher 
must necessarily originate his own plan of conducting a 
lesson. Originality in this respect is indeed a necessary 
element of success ; for the teacher must be able to 
recognize the particular needs of his own school, and 
must adapt his teaching to those demands. No amount 
of suggestions will give this power, nor can any one 
teach the knack of imparting information to others. It 
is a well known fact that many a wise man is a very 
poor teacher owing to deficiency in this respect. 

A teacher's success, then, depends very largely upon 
natural gifts, but it also depends upon a thorough 
knowledge, not only of the subjects he teaches, but also 
of the methods and books that he uses. With this 



8 THE ECLECTIC MANUAL. 

knowledge added to the necessary natural gifts, a 
teacher, no matter how inexperienced, may look con- 
fidently for good results from his teaching. Without it, 
even the most experienced teacher can not attain the 
best results. To supply this necessary information in 
regard to the books of the Eclectic Educational Series is 
the aim of this Manual, and it is issued in the hope that 
it will prove of valuable assistance to all teachers who 
are using those books in their schools. 

The Publishers take this opportunity of expressing 
their obligations to Superintendent R. W. Stevenson, 
Hon. Thomas W. Harvey, Miss M. E. Thalheimer, Dr. 
Eli F. Brown, and J. T. Stewart for their valuable assist- 
ance in the preparation of this Manual. 



READING 



I. 

AUXILIARY STUDIES. 

THERE are certain studies intimately connected with 
reading which should be taught in connection with 
it from the first. It will therefore be well to consider 
these briefly, and their relations one to another, as well 
as to the reading lesson itself, before taking up the 
details of the reading lesson proper. 

The four important auxiliary studies to be considered 
are : Language Lessons, Writing, Object Lessons and 
Composition, and Spelling. 

Language Lessons. — When the child first comes to 
school, he knows how to talk. He learned this art by 
associating certain spoken words with certain objects, 
attributes, and actions. He imitated the words that he 
heard, and thus in time learned to speak. If he has 
always heard correct language, his own language will for 
the most part be correct, and the errors he makes 
through inexperience or imperfect reasoning can be 
easily rectified. But the case is different where the child 
Jiears the same grammatical blunders and inelegant ex- 
pressions day after day, at home or on the playground, 
and naturally imitates them. These errors can be over- 
come only by patient persistence on the part of the 
child's instructors. A child of well educated and refined 
parents, and one whose associates are cultivated persons, 
will probably have but little use for a grammar at any 
time ; but such children are the rare exceptions, and the 

(11) 



12 READING. 

teacher must prepare to battle against great odds. He 
has only the short time that the child is in school to 
weigh against the many hours spent by that child under 
adverse influences, therefore there is all the more reason 
why work in this direction should receive the most 
watchful attention. Never allow a grammatical blunder 
to pass uncorrected either in a child's speech or in his 
written exercises. Above all, the teacher should be 
careful about his own language, both as to the choice of 
words and the form of expression. 

Do not make the mistake of writing wrong forms on 
the board, or elsewhere, for correction by young chil- 
dren. This may be done with profit in advanced 
classes, but it is best that a beginner should never 
see a wrong form of word or expression in the school- 
room. Correct all bad English instantly and quietly, 
but teach only the best, and bear in mind that the best 
is nearly always the simplest. 

This instruction in language is of the greatest import- 
ance to the child. "Just as the twig is bent the tree's 
inclined," and a man frequently bears unconsciously 
through life the marks of his early training. Habits of 
incorrect speech acquired in childhood become a part of 
a man's nature, and cling to him in his old age in spite 
of the cultivation of later years. 

But language lessons should not stop with the correc- 
tion of language ; they should teach, also, the proper 
use of the different parts of speech and the meaning of 
words. We do not mean the formal rules of grammar, 
nor the formal definitions of the dictionary ; but, by 
skillfully prepared and carefully graded oral exercises, 
practically illustrated, the child's vocabulary may be ex- 
tended, and he may be taught to understand and to use 



AUXILIARY STUDIES. 1 3 

English correctly, — when to use is and when to use are ; 
to distinguish between this and that, and tJiese and those, 
I and ;;/r, ivJio and luhich, slozv and slowly, stjvng, 
stro7iger, and strongest, etc., etc. 

Writing. — The reading and the writing of script 
should be begun with the first reading lesson. Chil- 
dren in the primary classes are occupied but a small 
portion of the time in reciting, and it is absolutely 
necessary to employ the remainder of their time in 
school in some way that will interest as well as instruct 
them. In no other way can this time be employed to 
better advantage than by having the scholars copy on 
their slates, or on the blackboard, both the printed and 
written forms of the letters and words learned in their 
reading lesson, for in no other way will the characters be 
so indelibly stamped upon the minds of the children. 

To facilitate instruction in these writing lessons, we 
present, on the four pages following, the "Slate Exer- 
cises " to be found on pages 61-64 of McGuffey's Re- 
vised Eclectic Primer. They will be found invaluable in 
this connection, and are repeated here for the benefit of 
those teachers who for any reason do not wish to use 
the Primer, and think it best to begin with the First 
Reader. In these Exercises, the small script letters are 
given in the order of their simplicity. They should be 
practiced as given in the copy, first separately, and then 
in combination, forming a word. It is not intended that 
the class should be confined to the exercises presented 
in the book. As rapidly as new letters are introduced, 
the teacher should form new words, and the exercises 
may then be multiplied at discretion. 

By the time a child has completed pages 14, 15, 
and 16, he should be familiar with all the small script 



H 



READING, 




AUXILIARY STUDIES. 



15 




i6 



READING. 




AUXILIARY STUDIES. 



17 



SCRIPT ALPHABETS. 



^^i^ J^ ^ ^ ^ J^ ^ ^ _^iy 

1/1/ 


^^J^^^^^ yny ytr ^^^ 


Ay Jy yfy ^^ /7/- yur- ,^iy X2^ /^ 


SCRIPT FIGURES. 


/3c3 ^d 6 / (Tf 



E. M.-2. 



1 8 READING. 

letters. The capitals, given alphabetically on page 17, 
and the script figures should be taught gradually, ac- 
cording to the daily requirements of the reading lessons. 
The copies presented on these four pages may be used 
apart, if so desired, simply as writing lessons, and to 
employ the unoccupied time of the children, but this 
work should by no means be allowed to interfere with 
the writing to be taught in connection with the reading 
lessons, which should be conducted as follows : 

Before beginning work, see that each child is provided 
with a slate properly ruled."" It is important, too, that 
each child should have a long and neatly sharpened slate 
pencil, for it must be borne in mind that this slate work 
is preparatory to Avork in the copy-books ; and it is very 
necessary that the first steps should be taken properly, 
and that no bad habits be formed. The child must be 
taught to hold a pencil in exactly the same way as he 
will be taught in future to hold a pen. (See Hand-book 
to the New Eclectic Penmanship, page 24.) This is an 
impossibility with a short pencil. Moreover, a short 



* It is necessary that this ruling be done very carefully, and, to 
secure the necessary accuracy and uniformity, the teacher himself 
should rule all the slates. The proper form of ruling is shown on 
pages 14, 15, and 16. The lines should be scratched on the slate 
with some sharp instrument, and care must be taken to make all 
lines exactly parallel and at right angles to the side of the slate, 
also to make the corresponding spaces precisely equal. A steel 
pen from which the points have been broken, leaving two stubs 
about one eighth of an inch apart, will be found of much assist- 
ance in scratching the lines properly. It is a good plan to rule 
the lines first with a slate pencil, and, when you have thus located 
them just as they should be, go over the pencil lines with a 
scratcher. 



A UXIL I A R V S TUDIES. 1 9 

pencil invariably leads to the bad habit of cramping the 
hand, while a clumsy, blunt pencil can be expected to 
produce but clumsy work. An intelligent teacher will 
look carefully after just such points in order to produce 
the best results. 

Of course, too great precision in the form and slant 
of the letters, or in any of the "fine points " of writing, 
is not to be expected of very young children. Let 
details go unnoticed at first, and be content with a care- 
ful correction of glaring faults in the position of the 
body and the limbs, in the manner of holding the pencil, 
etc. Little by little, one after another, the errors may 
be corrected and good habits formed. Thus, when 
work in the copy-books is commenced, tasks will prove 
easy and progress will be rapid. 

Give each child credit for effort, no matter how crude 
the first writing may be. The mere attempt at writing 
is meritorious, and it is very important that the child 
should not become discouraged at the outset. 

Begin the lesson in writing by putting on the black- 
board, between a head and a base line, in large, well- 
formed script, the first word learned in the reading 
lesson, or the first letter taught by the Phonic method, 
and let the children try to copy it on their slates ; when 
this is fairly learned, take up the next word or letter, 
and so on, until the children can write all the words of 
the lesson. The children are supposed to learn the 
printed forms of these words in the reading lesson 
proper ; and, if thought best to do so, the printed forms 
may also be practiced on the slates, the children using 
their books to copy from. 

The teacher should explain that the script forms mean 
exactly the same thing as the printed forms, and should 



20 READING. 

see that this is thoroughly clear to the pupils. Lest 
there should be confusion on this point, many teachers 
prefer to teach the writing of script only. With a little 
care, however, there need be no confusion, and practice 
on the printed forms certainly aids to fix them in the 
child's memory. Care must be taken, however, to 
advance very slowly at first. Do not introduce the 
second word until the first is fairly learned. When all 
the words are learned, they should be combined, and 
a part of the reading lesson for each day should be 
written on the slates, and then read aloud. 

The script exercises throughout the Primer and Read- 
ers are made up of only such words as have preceded 
them in print. They present no difficulties, therefore, 
except as exercises in writing and reading script. Let 
them be used as copies for slate work. 

Object Lessons and Composition. — As soon as the 
children have learned a sufficient number of words to 
make it practicable, have them compose sentences differ- 
ing from those found in the book. The review lessons 
in the Primer and Readers are constructed entirely from 
words learned in preceding lessons, and the teacher can 
readily make others of a similar nature. At first it will 
be necessary to dictate sentences for the children to 
write, or to put sentences on the board for them to 
copy, but in a short time the children will be able to 
compose their own sentences, and they should be en- 
couraged to do this as early as possible, for children 
should be led to think for themselves, and not merely to 
imitate. 

The illustrations of the Readers should be used as the 
basis of object lessons, and short compositions should be 
written about them. Before giving a lesson of this kind 



AUXILIARY STUDIES. 21 

to the class, have a talk with them about the picture 
that is to be the subject. The field is a wide one, but 
much depends upon the adroitness of the teacher in 
making suggestions and developing ideas, so as to get 
all the good possible out of the lesson. 

Long experience shows conclusively that object lessons 
are of little or no value except in connection with writ- 
ing. The two branches should therefore be taught in 
combination. 

Do not confine the object lessons to the reader illus- 
trations. A collection of familiar objects, such as pieces 
of metal, wood, and flowers, felt and leather, etc., 
should be made for use in this connection. Occasion- 
ally, let the children select their own subjects for compo- 
sition in what they see about them in the school-room 
or at home, at churches, art galleries, or museums, or on 
their way to and from school. In short, let them write 
about whatever interests them. Interest is the mainspring 
of this form of study. Encourage it in every possible 
way. Stir up a healthful spirit of rivalry among the 
children as to who can see the most and describe it in the 
best manner. Do not be too strict as to precise forms, 
but stimulate freedom of expression. This exercise 
trains the observation, gives the child fluency in using 
the words he has learned, and is at the same time a drill 
in expression and grammar, and in penmanship. 

The exercises should be begun as early as possible, — 
that is, just as soon as a child, without forcings can ex- 
press an idea in its written form, — and they should be 
continued throughout the school course. As the child 
takes up successively the studies of arithmetic, geog- 
raphy, history, grammar, and natural science, his mind 
develops and his ideas broaden ; nothing will assist this 



22 READING. 

mental growth so materially as the practice of putting 
into written words the facts learned and the thought 
evolved. Geography, history, and science furnish an 
inexhaustible supply of interesting topics ; arithmetic 
develops logic, and grammar assists expression. Thus, 
composition is a sure index to the intelligent teacher of 
the mental development of the child ; whether he has 
profited by teaching, and has acquired ideas, or simply 
''words, words, words." In fine, there is no more im- 
portant study in the common school curriculum than 
that of original composition. Unfortunately, there is no 
study which is more neglected. 

Spelling has to do with written language only. It 
bears the same relation to the written word that pronun- 
ciation does to the spoken word; and if there was no 
such thing as writing or printing, there would be no 
such thing as spelling. Spelling, then, is properly taught 
in connection with writing. If taught orally only, it is 
of but little use, and while children may appear to make 
rapid progress in this department, and be able to spell 
difficult and unusual words in a manner wonderful to the 
casual visitor at the school, yet these difficult and 
unusual words are forgotten, as a rule, as soon as the 
drilling process is abandoned; whereas, the aim of spell- 
ing is so to drill the child that in his after life, when 
school days are over, he can write any word in his vo- 
cabulary instantly, without a doubt or a thought as to 
its spelling. 

If the writing lessons suggested are performed in con- 
nection with each day's reading lesson, the child uncon- 
sciously learns to spell each word by writing it over and 
over again, and if the teacher does his duty in the care- 
ful correction of the object lessons and compositions of 



AUXILIARY STUDIES. 23 

his classes, there will be no need of formal spelling 
lessons in the first years of school work. The spelling- 
book has its proper place, and a valuable one, but that 
place is not in primary classes. The practice of select- 
ing words for spelling from the readers and exercises 
should be continued in all grades, even when the spell- 
ing-book is used. 



II. 

METHODS OF TEACHING. 

READING naturally presents itself as the first 
subject to be taught to young children. It is the 
foundation upon which the education is built, the key 
that unlocks all other branches of study. It is of the 
greatest importance, then, that this first step in educa- 
tion be taken in the proper manner and in the right 
direction. It is possible, on the one hand, greatly to 
interest the little child from the outset of his school life ; 
and, on the other, to discourage him utterly, and so 
disgust him with study that he presents to us anew 
Shakespeare's picture of 

"The whining school-boy, with his satchel 
And shining morning face, creeping like snail 
UnwiUingly to school." 

Properly conducted, the reading lesson may be made 
a source of real pleasure to the child, and at the same 
time a well-spring of information on many subjects. 
Improperly conducted, it becomes a mere memorizing, 
mechanical process, devoid of all interest, and burden- 
some alike to teacher and pupil. 

While the rapidity of advancement depends largely 
upon the natural intelligence of the pupils, the thorough- 
ness of the work and the real good accomplished depend 
almost entirely upon the intelligence of the teacher and 
the method of conducting the recitation. 

(24) 



METHODS OF TEACHING. 2$ 

Much has been said and written by experienced 
teachers and others as to methods of teaching reading. 
The Alphabet, Phonic, Phonetic, Word, and Script 
methods, and perhaps others, — all have their warm ad- 
herents, who claim that their particular method is t/ie 
only method by which reading can be taught properly; 
and yet we know that almost equally good results are 
obtained by teachers who use different methods. 

No doubt some methods are better than others, and it 
is certain that some one well-approved method should 
be adopted ; but we wish to warn the young teacher 
especially of the danger that the method will become a 
hobby unless he is careful, and that thus the end will be 
lost sight of in attention to the means. Select your 
method, and be consistent in its use, but do not allow 
yourself to be bound by laws that will admit of no dis- 
play of judgment. 

Probably the three most clearly defined and distinctly 
different methods are the Alphabet, the Word, and the 
Phonic methods. The Alphabet Method is still used in 
some of the best graded schools in the country; there- 
fore, the Revised Eclectic Primer and Readers are so 
prepared as to meet fully the requirements of this 
method, should a teacher see fit to employ it. The 
printed alphabets, large and small, may be found on 
pages 4 and 5 of the Primer, and on page 4 of the First 
Reader. The corresponding script alphabets are given 
on page 5 of the First Reader. By this method, the 
child is first taught the letters, then to combine the 
letters into words, and finally to combine words into 
sentences. No attention is paid in this method to dia- 
critical marks ; and the names of letters are taught, not 
the sounds. 

E.M.-3. 



26 READING. 

The Word Method teaches a child to recognize words 
as wholes; and, where objects are used in illustrating the 
first steps, it is sometimes called the Object Method. 
This method pays no attention to elementary sounds and 
diacritical marks. After a number of words are taught 
as wholes, the children are told the names of the letters, 
and learn to spell. 

By the Phonic Method, the child is first taught the 
elementary sounds of letters ; he is then taught to com- 
bine these elementary sounds into words. The sound is 
first taught, and then the character which represents it ; 
the spoken word is learned, and then its written and 
printed form. This method pays no attention to words 
as wholes until the elementary sounds composing them 
are learned. 

The Combined Word and Phonic Method first presents 
the word as a whole, and after a number of words are 
learned in this way, the elementary sounds composing 
them are taught, with the characters which represent 
them. 

While McGuffey's Readers are prepared to meet the 
demands of each of the recognized methods, they are 
especially adapted to the Phonic Method and to the 
Combined Word and Phonic Method, which are the two 
methods most extensively used by successful teachers of 
primary reading. It is suggested, therefore, that the 
teacher select one of these methods of instruction. In 
order that both may be fully understood, we give a 
rather full description of their different principles and 
processes. 

The Combined Method aims to teach the child to read 
just as he learned to talk. The child, before coming to 
school, has learned to associate the spoken word with 



METHODS OF TEACHING, 2 J 

the object, quality, action, etc., which that word repre- 
sents. He knows nothing of the component parts of a 
word ; he simply knows the sound of the word as a 
whole. The Combined Method aims to continue the 
child's mental development naturally from this point ; it 
utihzes the child's knowledge of the spoken symbol to 
teach him to associate the corresponding written or 
printed symbol with the object, quality, or action repre- 
sented by it. 

The Combined Method contemplates the following 
steps : 

1. The object, or picture of the object, is first pre- 
sented to the child, and its name called for; then the 
word is given, and written upon the board. Both object 
and word are observed until the child instantly associates 
the one with the other. 

2. The word is impressed on the child's mind by 
requiring him to write it, or to print and write it, over 
and over again. 

3. Words united into phrases and sentences are 
taught in the same manner as single words ; that is, the 
idea is developed first. The child is led to express the 
thought in words, and these words are then presented to 
his eye and impressed upon his memory. 

4. The child learns to use written words by combin- 
ing them himself into phrases and sentences. 

5. Words are analyzed, or separated into their ele- 
mentary sounds. 

6. The child learns the letters or combinations of 
letters that represent these elementary sounds. 

7. The child learns to combine the letters so as to 
form new words. 

8. The use of diacritical marks and of the marks of 



28 READING. 

punctuation are learned gradually by the association of 
ideas. 

9. Spelling is unconsciously learned by repeatedly 
writing the words of the reading lesson. 

This order is followed in the detailed instructions for 
conducting the first lesson of McGuffey's Revised Primer. 
See page 33. 

The Phonic Method also aims to lead a child naturally 
from the known to the unknown. The primary distinc- 
tion between it and the Combined Method is that the 
sense of hearing is first appealed to instead of the sight. 
Long before a child can speak, he is able to distinguish 
sounds. He recognizes the voices of his mother, father, 
brothers, and sisters, and distinguishes each from the 
others. It is claimed, therefore, by the adherents of 
this method, that inasmuch as hearing is the sense which 
is first developed, it should be used rather than the 
sight in the preliminary steps. The following order of 
teaching reading is in accordance with the principles of 
the Phonic Method : 

1. The child is taught the nature of sound. 

2. The child is required to distinguish sounds of 
different kinds. 

3. The written characters which represent the ele- 
mentary sounds of our language are next taught, com- 
mencing with the simplest sounds ; that is, the short 
vocals. 

4. The elementary sounds are combined so as to form 
written words. 

5. Written words are combined into sentences. 

6. A few words made up of difficult sounds should 
be taught as wholes. The articles a, an, and tJic are of 
this nature; and these are not only taught as wholes, 



METHODS OF TEACHING. 2g 

but must invariably be taught in combination with the 
words following. 

Note. — This, it will be seen, is not in conformity with a pure 
Phonic method, but it is the course pursued universally by the 
best teachers. 

7. The children are now required to make the transi- 
tion from script to Roman or printed forms. 

8. The meaning of words is carefully developed. 

9. The use of capital letters and the principal marks 
of punctuation are taught gradually, as they are used in 
the text. 

10. The children are taught to spell orally and by 
writing. 

11. The children are led to discover the expression 
through the thought. 

By comparing the several steps of the Combined and 
the Phonic methods, we note the following principal 
differences : 

1. The Phonic Method appeals first to the ear. The 
Combined Method, to the eye. 

2. The Phonic Method first teaches the elementary 
sounds, and then combines them into words. The Com- 
bined Method first presents the word, and then separates 
it into its elementary sounds. In this step, the Phonic 
Method is synthetic ; the Combined Method is analytic. 

Note. — It will be observed that the Combined Method employs 
synthesis later in requiring the pupil to unite the elementary sounds 
into words. 

3. The Phonic Method teaches the diacritical marks at 
the beginning. The Combined Method does not teach 
them until words are learned as wholes. 



30 READING. 

The detailed instructions for Lesson I of the First 
Reader are in accordance with the Phonic Method. The 
teacher should carefully compare these instructions with 
those for conducting the first lessons of the Primer 
before deciding which method he will use. It is of 
course understood that, whichever method be adopted, 
it must be used in teaching both the Primer and the 
First Reader. 

In the selection of a method, the teacher has simply 
to consider by which one he can teach a child in the 
shortest time to read simple sentences intelligently. 
This is the chief aim in primary reading classes. After 
a certain point, of course, no matter what the method, 
the primary steps are abandoned as no longer necessary, 
and the teacher must then bear constantly in mind the 
two main objects in learning the art of reading. 

The first object in reading, as we understand it, is to 
apprehend properly the thought of the writer ; and the 
second object, that of oral reading, is to communicate 
this thought to others clearly and in the author's exact 
words. The word "thought," in this connection, is in- 
tended to include, however, not only the exact words 
of the writer, but also the mind or soul that inspired 
the words. Without the latter, reading is unintelligent 
and profitless. The constant care, then, should be to 
see that the child grasps the idea fully before he 
attempts to express it in words. ** Ideas before words" 
always, but in no study should this rule be more strictly 
observed than in teaching reading. When a printed or 
written word, phrase, or sentence evolves a clear idea in 
a child's mind, he expresses it naturally ; or, in other 
words, he reads exactly as he would speak, and this is 
the proof to the hearer that the reader understands 



METHODS OF TEACHING. 3 I 

what he is reading. This is the chief use of oral read- 
ing in the school-room. The teacher must not forget 
that oral reading in after years will be very small in 
comparison with silent reading ; therefore, the child 
should be taught to gather, in silence -and with rapidity, 
the ideas from the printed page. 



III. 

McGUFFEY'S PRIMER. 

THE use of this book in the series is optional with 
the teacher, as the Readers have been constructed 
independent of the Primer for the accommodation of 
those who are very much Hmited as to time. It is, 
however, strongly urged that the Primer be used where 
it is possible to do so. The lessons are shorter and 
simpler, and the gradation is less rapid than in the First 
Reader ; hence, the first steps are easier alike for teacher 
and pupil. The demand for * ' more primary reading 
matter" is constantly increasing, and there are but few 
schools where it will not be a positive advantage to use 
both Primer and First Reader. 

The plan on which the Primer is constructed is the 
simplest and best known. It applies to the First, 
Second, and Third Readers as well, and is as follows: 

At the beginning of each lesson are placed all the 
new words and all the new elementary sounds to be 
found in that particular lesson, and no new word or ele- 
ment is given in a vocabulary that is not found in the 
particular lesson which it precedes. Omissions and 
repetitions alike have been carefully avoided in these 
vocabularies, and thus the teacher can tell, by a glance 
at the vocabulary, exactly what new work is to be 
mastered. 

The articles a, an, and they and the simplest words 
possible are first presented in both the Primer and 

(32) 



McGUFFEY'S PRIMER, 33 

First Reader. New words are introduced on a carefully 
graded plan. The simplest elementary sounds (the short 
vocals, etc.) are presented first. The more difficult 
sounds, combinations, and substitutes are then gradually 
interwoven, and, by the time the Primer is finished, all 
the vocals, long and short ; all the diphthongs ; all the 
aspirates ; all the subvocals except z, as in azure ; and 
all the substitutes except i for e, as in police ; cJi for sh^ 
as in chaise ; s for sh, as in sure ; x for gz^ as in exact; 
pJi for /", as in phlox ; and qu for k, as in pique , have 
been presented. It will be noticed that these excep- 
tions invariably involve words of difficult spelling, which 
should not be presented to the child until the end of 
the first or the beginning of the second year of his 
school course. 

Lesson I. — Call the attention of the children to the 
two illustrations accompanying this lesson, the cat and 
the rat, and engage them in conversation about them. 
Such questions as, Who has a cat at home ? What is 
her color? Does she catch rats? etc., etc., will soon 
awaken interest in the subject. 

When the attention and interest of the children are 
secured, revert to the illustration in the book, and re- 
sume your questioning in some such way as follows : 

Teacher. — Do you say that this is a cat ? Can it run about ? 
Can it mew ? Can it drink milk ? Can it catch mice and rats 
like your cat at home ? Is it a real cat, then ? 

Children . — No . 

Teacher. — Who can tell me, then, what this is ? [Pointing to the 
picture of the cat in the doo^.] 

If you do not succeed in drawing out the correct 
answer, ask the class if it is a picture of a cat. • When 



34 ' READING. 

the answer is satisfactorily given, proceed with the next 
step. 

Teacher. — You say this is a picture of a cat. It is not a real 
cat, but when you look at it you know at once that it means a 
cat. Who would like to see a picture of the word cat, that you 
have just pronounced ? Pronounce the word cat again, all at 
once. Now — 

Children . — C at . 

The teacher should now place the word on the board. 
When this is done, the teacher should resume, pointing 
to the word on the board: 

Teacher. — There, children, that is the picture that stands for the 
word cat, just as this picture in the book stands for a real cat. 
How do you pronounce this word ? \P0i71ting to the board.^ 

Childre7i. — Cat. 

Teacher. — Now, who can find a picture of this word cat in the 
book ? 

As the word occurs several times in Lesson I, call up 
several children, and see how many times each can find 
the word in the lesson. Be reasonably sure that all in 
the class are able to recognize the word at sight before 
going any farther. 

Next call attention to the picture of the rat, and 
follow the same steps until the entire class is familiar 
w^th the w^ord rat also. Then place both the words cat 
and rat on the board a number of times, and test the 
individual members of the class, seeing that each can 
readily pick out the right word when it is pronounced. 
Vary the exercise by letting one child pronounce one of 
the words for another to point out, and allow the entire 
class to correct errors. It will be found that this calling 
upon one member of the class to examine another will 
add greatly to the interest taken in the recitation. 



McGUFFEY'S PRIMER. 35 

When the two words are quite thoroughly mastered, 
it will be time to take up the combinations "a cat" and 
"a rat." Turn to the illustration, and ask: 

Teacher. — Of what did you say this was a picture ? Did you 
say "picture of cat" or "picture of a cat?" 
Childreji. — Picture of a cat. 

[Note. — This is simply to draw out the combination "a cat." 
In asking the question do not emphasize the a.\ 

Write "a cat" on the board, and teach the phrase 
as you did the single word; also, the phrase **a rat." 
Be very careful, in pronouncing the phrase yourself, not 
to give the a its long sound, ''a rat," ''a cat," and 
do not allow the children to do so. The a should 
have its obscure sound, as it has in ordinary conversa- 
tion, when one says, * * This is a cat ; that is a rat, " or 
as you would sound the a in along, arowid^ about, etc. 
This is quite an important point; and, if neglected, the 
children, from the very beginning, acquire a drawling 
habit of reading that may take years to eradicate. 

Drill the class on the phrases, so that they can readily 
distinguish each from the other, and from the simple 
words cat and rat. 

We now come to the word and. Ask the children: 
*' What are these animals we have been talking about?" 
If they do not answer as you wish the first time, perse- 
vere until they do, and you succeed in getting the 
natural answer, "A cat and a rat." Repeat their 
answer, and emphasize the a7id a little. Ask, "Who 
can tell which word we have not studied? Listen while 
I say it again: A cat and a rat." Give the answer in 
case the class fails, and place the word a7id on the board. 
Teach it as you taught the other single words. When 



36 READING. 

it is learned, and all the words and phrases can be dis- 
tinguished instantly, it is time to combine the two 
phrases, and the children should be able to read them 
readily as printed in the book. 

At the close of the first reading lesson, however short 
it may be made, begin the first lesson in writing as 
directed on page 13, and advance to the combination of 
written words into phrases and sentences as rapidly as 
the progress of the class will permit. 

Lesson II. — In this lesson there are five new words 
to be learned. 

Begin, as in Lesson I, with a pleasant talk about the 
illustration. Remind the children of the cat and rat in 
Lesson I, and have them point out the cat and the rat 
in the illustration of Lesson II. Make up a little story 
from the illustrations of Lesson I and Lesson II ; or, 
better still, have the children make up a story of their 
own. 

Ask who can point out the word cat in Lesson II ; the 
word rat; the combination "a cat;" the combination 
"a rat." Proceed in the same manner as in Lesson I. 

In teaching the phrases ''the cat" and "the rat,'' 
care should be taken not to allow the children to drawl 
out, "t-h-e c-a-t, " "t-h-e r-a-t. " These phrases should 
be pronounced as in ordinary conversation, "the cat," 
"the rat," giving the e, in tJie, its obscure sound. 

Write all the words and phrases contained in both 
Lessons I and II on the board promiscuously, and test 
the thoroughness of the work so far accomplished by 
having individual members of the class point out each 
word and phrase as it is pronounced by the teacher 
or by some other member of the class. Proceed as in 
Lesson I. 



McGUFFEY'S PRIMER. 37 

It is not thought necessary to give detailed instruc- 
tion for every lesson in the book. If we have suc- 
ceeded in showing in these first two lessons, and in the 
"General Remarks," Chapter V, the plan of instruction 
by the Combined Method, we are confident that any in- 
telligent teacher can use it successfully without further 
aid. 

Lessons III and IV. — These lessons present no diffi- 
culties that need farther suggestions, except a new sound 
of s in Lesson IV. 

The teacher should call the attention of the class to 
the difference between this sound of jr and the s in Les- 
son II. And it may be accepted as a general rule that 
whenever a new sound of a letter is introduced, it should 
always be compared with the sound or sounds of the 
same letter already learned. In this way, the children 
will soon become familiar with the force of the diacritical 
marks. Always teach digraphs as such, and never as 
two separate letters. 

Lesson V. — Every fifth lesson in the book (except 
the fiftieth) is a review of the four lessons preceding ; 
and, as far as has been possible, the new words of those 
four lessons are repeated in the review. These reviews 
are valuable, therefore, as tests of the thoroughness of 
the work done, and should be made the most important 
lessons in the book. 

Hesitation on the part of a number of the class on a 
review lesson shows a fault somewhere ; either the work 
has been pushed too rapidly, or some one lesson, per- 
haps, has not been thoroughly mastered. A little 
careful investigation will reveal the trouble, and the defect 
can be remedied, and should be remedied thoroughly, 
before proceeding with the next series of lessons. 



38 READING. 

Lesson VI.^ — In this lesson we have '^, the sign of 
the possessive, introduced. Teach its force, and see 
that the children fully understand it. In succeeding 
lessons, it is frequently used when the simple nomina- 
tive is given in the vocabulary. The sound of o in dog 
demands watchfulness. There is a tendency to pro- 
nounce this word as though it were spelled daivg. The 
words frog, doll, log, God, etc., are similarly mispro- 
nounced by many persons. This is not the proper 
sound of 6, and the same persons who mispronounce 
the above words would never think of giving the same 
sound to 6 in such words as fog, got, odd, or Jiod. In- 
sist on the proper sound of 6 wherever it occurs. 

Lesson XIX. — We would call attention to the sound 
of a in fast. The sound of a is the most commonly 
mispronounced of all the a sounds, and the error is 
quite common, even among the best educated classes. 
Many who know better give this a the wrong sound 
through the force of habit and association and the lack 
of early training. The common error consists in giving 
a as though it were a, as in fat, for example. How 
many of your pupils make a difference in the a sound 
in fat and fast? On the other hand, the extremely 
broad a, as in fall, should be avoided. The word is 
neither pronounced fast nor fast, but fast, about mid- 
way between the two. 

It would perhaps be well to make a list of the words 
containing this sound of a as the class meets them, and 
give a special drill on it from time to time. 

Lesson XXII. — In this lesson, call particular attention 
to the difference in pronunciation of the words of and 
off. Both occur in the lesson. Refer to Lesson XIX 
for the phonic spelling of of. 



McGUFFEY'S PRIMER. 39 

Lesson XXIII. — In this lesson, one {wiui) needs par- 
ticular attention. 

Lesson XXV. Review. — The word doll has been 
learned in Lessons XVI and XX. It is here given in 
the plural form, dolls. Other plurals have been learned 
by the pupils. If the class shows any hesitation over 
the word, pronounce it and explain the difference be- 
tween doll and dolls in simple language. 

Lesson XXVII. — The use of the hyphen is illustrated 
in this lesson as joining two separate words, mill and 
pond, making a compound word. See that it is thor- 
oughly understood. A test of this will be afforded in 
reading the review, Lesson XXX, where mill-wJieel 
occurs, and also in Lesson XLI, where ligJit-hoiise is 
given. 

Lesson XXXIV. — With the close of this lesson, all 
the small letters of the alphabet have been introduced. 
If the capitals have been studied in connection with the 
small letters, as suggested, and also the script forms of 
both, this is the place for a thorough review of all the 
alphabets. 

Notice the fact that none of the words in the vocab- 
ulary of this lesson, except zve, are given in the follow- 
ing review, and the lesson should therefore receive 
particular attention. 

Lesson XXXVI. — Explain the meaning of the quo- 
tation marks, which are here met with for the first time. 

Lesson XXXVIII. — The quotation marks in this les- 
son need further explanation. Those in Lesson XXXVI 
indicated a simple quotation ; these represent a dialogue 
in progress. 

Lesson XLIV. — Particular attention should be given 
to the rather difficult words, said [scd) and once {wiuis). 



40 READING. 

Lesson XLVIII. — Pay attention to been {biii). 

Lesson XLIX. — The use of the apostrophe in 77/, 
she'll, and dont demands careful explanation. Write 
the words ''I will," **she will," and "do not" on the 
board. Rub out the letters wi in will, in each case, and 
the in 7iot, and substitute the apostrophe, explaining 
that the latter takes the place of the letters omitted, or 
''stands for" them. This ocular demonstration will 
make the fact clear to the children without much talk- 
ing. 

Lesson LL — Explain the hyphen and the acute accent 
in the word ago. 

Lesson LIL — This lesson and Lessons XLVI and 
XLIX may be used to advantage as exercises for mem- 
orizing and speaking. 



IV. 

McGUFFEY'S FIRST READER. 

IF the class has studied the Revised Eclectic Primer 
before taking up this book, the teacher will find the 
way clear for rapid advancement. The first ten lessons 
of the Reader contain only three new words {^fed, left, 
and pafi) not already studied in the Primer. In the next 
seventeen lessons, about half the words are new; among 
them, a dozen words of two syllables. These latter 
should not offer any particular difficulty, as a few words 
of this kind have been met with in the Primer. From 
this point forward, the proportion of new words and 
two-syllable words rapidly increases, affording an abund- 
ance of material for advance work. Attention will be 
called to any special difficulties that present themselves 
under the directions for each particular lesson demanding 
notice. 

As before stated, the detailed instructions for the first 
lessons of the First Reader are in accordance with the 
Phonic Method. If a teacher prefers to use the Com- 
bined Method, it is presumed that the instructions for 
the first lessons in the Primer will be a sufficient guide 
for work in the Readers. On the other hand, teachers 
using the Phonic Method will be able, it is thought, to 
follow that method very easily in the Primer after con- 
sulting the following instructions for the First Reader. 

As it can not be assumed that all teachers will use 
both Primer and First Reader, the detailed instructions 

E. M.— 4. (41) 



42 READING. 

for the latter have been made as full as though the 
Primer had not been used. This fact will explain a few 
repetitions. 

If the Primer is not to be used, it will be well to 
begin work with a few preliminary oral lessons, which 
may be conducted as shown in the following pages. If 
the teacher intends to use both the Primer and the First 
Reader, and to teach by the Phonic Method, lessons cor- 
responding to the following should precede the Primer, 
and these lessons should be omitted. 

Recognition of Sounds. — After the attention of the 
children has been gained, the teacher taps the table with 
a pencil, and explains to the children that what they 
hear is called a sound. 

After repeating the same sound several times, the 
teacher tells the children to listen and he will make 
another sound. This may be done by tapping a bell or 
a piece of metal, and the children are led to distinguish 
between the two different sounds. 

After a little practice of this nature, tell the children 
that the words which they hear and understand are 
sounds. Ask them whether, if they heard two sounds, 
one made by a dog, and one by a bird, they could tell 
from the sounds which one was made by the bird and 
which by the dog. 

Tell them you are now going to try them, and see 
whether without looking they can tell you the different 
sounds you make. The children may shut their eyes, 
or stand with their backs to the teacher, or the teacher 
may make the different sounds behind the desk, asking 
after each, ''What sound did you hear?" Answers 
like the following may be given: "The sound I heard 
was a tap on a bell." "The sound I heard was a tap 



McGUFFEY'S FIRST READER. 43 

on a book." "I heard a talk-sound." '*I heard a 
sing-sound." 

It will be found interesting and profitable to continue 
this practice in distinguishing sounds, in connection with 
the regular lessons, till the children catch the sounds 
readily and accurately. Each succeeding lesson should 
be a more severe test of the children's abilities than the 
one preceding. 

The Sound Represented by Short A. — In commenc- 
ing to teach the elementary sounds in Lesson I of the 
First Reader, select one of the short vowels. If you 
select a, you should follow it by ;/ and r; if you select 
0, you should follow it by g and d ; that is, finish the 
word with which you begin before taking up the sounds 
of another. 

Begin by asking the class to tell you some sounds they 
can make with their mouths. "We can sing." **We 
can talk." "We can whistle." "We cry sometimes.^' 
These may be some of the answers of the children. 

The teacher says, "Now listen to me. I will make a 
sound." He gives the sound a. The children repeat it, 
with the teacher, several times. Care must be taken 
that the sound is made short and pure. Have the chil- 
dren give the sound alone ; the boys alone ; the girls 
alone ; the children in the front row ; any one who will 
volunteer ; and, finally, each child should be required to 
give the sound alone. 

The teacher here explains that sounds can be heard 
but not seen, but marks may be made to stand for 
sounds. The teacher turns to the blackboard, and, be- 
tween a head-line and a base-line, writes : x^jy . He 
explains to the children that when they see this they are 
to make the sound just learned. The children are 



44 READING. 

shown, next, how to make the character, and the 
teacher asks, **How many will try to make this on their 
slates?" Write the following copy carefully on the 
board, and have the children, at their seats, imitate it 
on their slates as well as they can : 



^^^ ^jy ^jy ^^y ^r^^\ 



After practicing for a time, the children should exhibit 
their slates to the teacher, who should point out the 
faults carefully and delicately, and should give farther 
explanations about writing, illustrating on the black- 
board. See page 13. 

The word "Ran." — Teach the sound of n as you 
taught that of a. Contrast the two sounds repeatedly, 
and see that the children can distinguish them readily 
and can produce them. 

Write the character n on the board as copy for a writ- 
ing lesson. It may be practiced a part at a time, if 
thought desirable, as follows: 



When the children can give the sounds and write the 
characters a and n, teach them to sound and write their 
combination, an. 

Teach the sound and form of r, and then the word 
ran as a whole. 

The word " Dog." — Teach the word dbg in the 
same gradual way that you taught ran, and in the same 
order, viz.: the sound of b; its written character; the 
sound of g; its written character ; the sound of the com- 
bination bg; the written combination bg; the sound of 



McGUFFEY'S FIRST READER. 45 

d; its written character; the sounds of dog, as a whole; 
the written word as a whole. 

The word "The." — Do not attempt to teach the 
elementary sounds composing tJie, as the obscure sound 
of c is too difficult to introduce at this point. It is ab- 
solutely necessary to introduce the articles a, an, and the 
early in the course on account of their constant occur- 
rence in even the simplest sentences ; but they should 
be taught, as before suggested, only in combination with 
the words which follow. 

After the word dog has been learned, teach by sound 
the phrase, "the dog." Be very careful not to accent 
the tJiL\ or to give the e its long sound, thus: ''the' 
dog," but pronounce the words naturally, as you would 
in enumerating "the dog, the cat, the rat," etc., giving 
the c its obscure sound, and letting the accent fall on 
dog. This is quite an important point, as tJie should 
never be pronounced in combination in any other way 
than that here laid down, and if the children are allowed 
to hear or to pronounce the words "the' dog," etc., 
they will fall into the habit of drawling, which will be 
very difficult to overcome. 

Write the combination on the board with and without 
the capital T, thus: "The dog, the dog." Pronounce 
the phrase, and have the children pronounce it after you 
correctly, both in concert and individually, as you point 
it out on the board. Do not say any thing about cap- 
itals and small letters at this point. Simply say that The 
and tJie mean the same thing, and drill the children until 
they can recognize each by itself and in combination 
with the word dog. Have the pupils write the phrases 
on their slates. 

Finally, teach the complete sentence, "The dog ran." 



46 READING. 

Length of Lessons. — It is impossible to make any 
arbitrary division of these preHminary lessons. Each 
teacher must decide for himself as to the length of the 
lessons, as circumstances dictate. But the caution may 
be repeated not to attempt too much in one lesson ; at 
the same time, introduce enough new matter to keep the 
children interested. Each lesson in this preliminary 
work should commence with a review of all that has 
already been learned. 



Lesson I. — The transition from script to the printed 
forms usually presents but little difficulty to children. 
After two or three lessons, they read one form as readily 
as the other. 

When the written characters of the several elementary 
sounds and words of the first lesson are well learned by 
the children, write the complete list on the board, and 
under each written character and word make its corre- 
sponding printed form, being careful to insert all the 
diacritical marks in both forms. Drill the class on these 
printed forms at first in connection with the written 
forms ; then rub out the written forms, and drill on the 
printed forms alone. 

When the printed forms of all the characters and 
words can be pointed out as soon as sounded, and 
sounded as soon as pointed out, have the children open 
their books and read Lesson I. 

Correct drawling and hesitation at once. Do not let 
a child say, "ThV d-aw-g\ Th-e' d-aw-g' r-a-a-n\" 
See that each child says, "The dog\ The dog' ran\" 
promptly and naturally, as they would in speaking, the 



McGUFFEY'S FIRST READER. 47 

moment the combinations are presented to the eye. It 
is essential to enforce this point from the beginning. 

There is a strong tendency in some locaUties to pro- 
nounce the word dog as though it were spelled dawg. 
The words frog, doll, log, God, etc., are similarly mis- 
pronounced by many persons. This is not the proper 
sound of o, and the same persons would never think of 
pronouncing the words fog, got, odd, or hod, in the same 
way. Insist on the proper sound of 6 from the begin- 
ning, and wherever it occurs. 

Lesson II. — In this lesson we have four new words 
and five new elementary sounds. 

Teach the new elementary sounds, words, and combi- 
nations, as in Lesson I. The vocabularies invariably 
contain all new words and sounds, so they will not have 
to be sought for in the text. 

Illustrate the use of the word on by placing your 
book, pencil, etc., on the desk, on a chair, on your 
hand, etc., and ask in each case zvhere it is. When the 
class understands the force and meaning of the word, 
teach its written form in the usual manner. 

When satisfied that all can recognize the printed new 
characters and words at sight, have the lesson read from 
the book. 

Explain the interrogation point. Tell the children 
that when they see that mark they may always know 
that a question is asked. Have them read the question, 
"Is the cat on the mat?" giving the proper rising in- 
flection on the last word. Then have them read the 
answer with the downward inflection at the close, and 
with the proper emphasis on is. The proper expression 
in this case, and in similar ones, can usually be elicited 
from the children by a few well-put questions which 



48 READING, 

teachers call "thought study;" as, ''What is on the 
mat?" ''Where is the cat?'^ "Is the cat under the 
mat?" 

Do not allow a child to read the question and answer 
in the painfully monotonous way so often heard in 
primary classes, with pauses between each word, and 
with the rising inflection on each word but the last, as 
follows : ' ' Is'— the'— cat'— on'— the'— mat^ ? " " The'— 
cat' — is' — on' — the' — mat\" Insist on having both ques- 
tion and answer read in the same natural tones that the 
child would employ in speaking. If the class fail to 
read the question properly, have the books closed, and 
select some pupil to ask the question and another to 
answer it. Do not show them how to do it, and have 
them imitate you. That is simply "parrot work," words 
without thought, and the very worst of all bad methods. 
Tell one pupil to ask another if the cat is on the mat, 
just as though he really wished to know, and tell the 
second pupil to answer, not by "yes" or "no," but in 
full, either that the cat is or is not on the mat. When 
this has been done properly, have the entire class ask 
and answer the question, and then have it read in pre- 
cisely the same tones. Constant attention to just such 
points as this leads the children to think for them- 
selves, and they soon become intelligent and agreeable 
readers. 

If spelling be taught orally at all, it should be con- 
fined, in primary classes, to the words of the reading 
lessons, and should invariably be combined with written 
exercises on the same words (see page 22). Some 
teachers prefer to use oral as well as written exercises in 
spelling, claiming that the former assists some children 
to remember the words they have learned. It also 



McGUFFEY'S FIRST READER, 49 

assists in articulation, by requiring the child to name the 
letter and then give it its proper sound. 

Word building, as suggested on page 59, should be 
begun as soon as possible ; and, after some progress has 
been made, it will be found interesting to the children 
to write the thoughts in a lesson, sentence by sentence, 
in their own words. This is a capital exercise, as it 
soon teaches a child to use his vocabulary properly, and 
to discover the expression through the thought. 

When the class is far enough advanced to have the 
reading lesson assigned for study before recitation, call 
attention to such points as will be likely to excite 
curiosity and interest. It is unwise to read the lesson in 
full, as is sometimes done. The children should be left 
to do as much work as possible for themselves. It is 
hardly necessary to say, perhaps, that there should be a 
daily review of each lesson of the preceding day. 

The detailed instructions for Lessons I and II are pre- 
sumed to be a sufficient guide for succeeding lessons. 
In the latter, therefore, attention is called merely to 
those points which demand particular instruction. 

The ** General Remarks," Chapter V, apply equally 
to Primer and First Reader, and, usually, to the Phonic 
as well as to the Combined Method. They should be 
read before commencing work on the first reading lesson, 
whether it be in the Primer or the First Reader. 

Lessons III, IV, V. — Nothing demanding especial 
attention is met with in Lessons III and IV. In Les- 
son V, there is a new sound of c and a new sound of 
s. Call the attention of the children to the short sound 
of i\ as m pen, Lesson III, and contrast it with the long 
sound of e, as in see. Compare the sound of s, in see^ 

with the sound of s, in is, Lesson II. 
E. M.— 5. 



50 READING, 

Here, also, we have two words containing silent let- 
ters, — Ann and see. These should be explained in very 
simple language. Tell the children that Ann is pro- 
nounced just as though it were printed An^ and sec just 
as though it were printed se. Illustrate by writing the 
two words on the board as they are properly spelled, 
and then cancel the silent letters by drawing a line 
through them. 

The digraph cJi should be taught as one element, and 
we may give this instruction generally in regard to all 
digraphs. Also, wherever a new sound of a letter is 
met with, whether vowel or consonant, it should invari- 
ably be contrasted with the sound or sounds of the 
letter previously studied ; and in making these com- 
parisons, the letters, with their diacritical marks^ should 
always be written or printed on the board. In this 
way, the children will soon become familiar with the 
force of the diacritical marks. 

The exclamation point is first met in Lesson V. Call 
attention to it, and teach its meaning. 

Lesson VI. — There are three digraphs in the vocabu- 
lary. Double long has Its peculiar sound, differing 
from simple o long. It will not do to treat it, therefore, 
as we did double e in Lesson V, where practically one e 
is silent and the other has the identical sound of long e. 

For the combination ozv, here and in all other cases, 
see ''Suggestions to Teachers," page 2 of McGuffey's 
Revised First Eclectic Reader. 

Lesson VII. — The silent g, In eggs, affords oppor- 
tunity to review the instructions on this point, and to 
test the understanding of the class. 

Lesson IX.- — This Is the first review lesson, and 
should receive careful attention. All the words em- 



McGUFFEY'S FIRST READER. 5 I 

ployed have been given in preceding vocabularies. This 
is true of every review lesson in the book. Hesitation, 
therefore, on the part of any considerable number of the 
class, on a review, indicates a fault somewhere. Either 
work has been pushed too rapidly, or some one lesson, 
perhaps, has not been thoroughly mastered. A little 
careful investigation will generally reveal the trouble, 
and the defect can be remedied, and should be, before 
proceeding with the next series of lessons. 

Lesson XI. — By the time the class has finished this 
lesson, they have met with all the small letters of the 
alphabet except q and z. As these two letters are but 
little used, and are introduced very much later in the 
book, it is suggested that at this point a thorough 
review be given of the alphabets, large and small, printed 
and script, excepting these two letters. If the teacher 
so prefers, these two letters may also be taught in con- 
nection with this lesson, which is quite a simple one. 
If the class has previously studied the Primer, of course 
this review of the alphabets will be unnecessary. 

Lesson XII. — Kitty is the first word of two syllables 
in this book. The accent should be explained and vocal 
illustration given. The combination iig is rather difficult 
and needs especial care. 

Lesson XIII. — Explain in simple language the use of 
the ' s as denoting possession. Drill carefully on ii. 

Lessons X\^II and XVIII. — The lessons are intended 
as especial drills on script. They should be zuiiticii by 
each member of the class as well as read. This instruc- 
tion applies to similar lessons throughout the book. 

Lesson XIX. — The sound of a is the most commonly 
mispronounced of all the a sounds, and the error is 
quite common, even among the best educated classes. 



52 READING. 

Many who know better give it the wrong sound through 
the force of habit and association, and the lack of early 
training. The error lies in giving a as though it were a. 
On the other hand, the extremely broad a, as in fall, 
should be avoided. The word is neither pronounced 
grass, nor grass, but grass. 

It would be well to make a list of the words contain- 
ing this sound of a as the class meets them, and give a 
special drill on it from time to time. 

Lesson XXI. — Here we have a very unusual substitu- 
tion of e for i in the word pretty, which is frequently 
mispronounced pretty in place of prit'ty. 

Lesson XXIV. — Teach in simple language the use of 
the hyphen at the end of the first line of this lesson. 

Lesson XXV. — The combination ai is not recognized 
as a substitute for e. The word said is therefore re- 
spelled in order to give its proper pronunciation. Teach 
the use of the quotation marks, which are here intro- 
duced. 

Lesson XXVIII. — The word cant presents two diffi- 
culties, — its pronunciation and the mark of abbrevia- 
tion. 

While the word can has the short a, it will be noticed 
that in cajit the a is pronounced like a in farm. The 
proper pronunciation should be insisted upon as often 
as the word is used by a pupil in the teacher's 
presence. 

To explain the abbreviation mark, write the words 
"can not" on the board; then rub out the 7W of not, 
and write the apostrophe in their place, explaining that 
it stands for the omitted letters. Test the class in the 
use of the hyphen in the line next to the last in the 
lesson. 



McGUFFEY'S FIRST READER. 53 

Lesson XXX. — The word wont is a peculiar contrac- 
tion of ''will not" or " woll not" used colloquially. 
In New England it is sometimes pronounced as though 
spelled wimt. A full explanation of the derivation of 
the word would probably not be understood by young 
children. It will be sufficient to explain that the apos- 
trophe stands for an omitted o, in the word not, which 
helps form the compound. It will be noticed that the 
quotation marks in this lesson are used to indicate a con- 
tinued conversation, differing from previous cases in the 
omission of the person relating the conversation. See 
that the children understand that two persons are speak- 
ing, and when one ceases and the other begins. 

Lesson XXXI. — The past tenses, called and jumped^ 
are the first words of their form that are presented. 
They may be mistaken for words of two syllables. 
Teach that the e in both words is silent. Attention 
should be called to a new use of the capital letter at the 
beginning of a quotation, as in paragraph seven: ''Kate 
said, * Good old Ponto ! ' " Heretofore the capital has 
been used only as the initial letter of a proper name 
and of the first word of a sentence. 

Lesson XXXI I. — The word says is respelled, since ay 
is not recognized as a substitute for e. The letter z is 
first presented in this respelling. If it causes any diffi- 
culty, substitute § for z, thus : ses. 

Lesson XXXV. — Test the knowledge of the class on 
the use of the apostrophe in Fve. If no one can tell 
for what letters it stands, write the words "I have" on 
the board, and have some pupil erase the proper letters 
without prompting. Assign compositions in which the 
children are to use the abbreviations Fve, Fll, Fd^ 
Fmy etc. 



54 READING. 

Lesson XXXVI. — This lesson presents another word 
requiring respeUing in order to show its proper pronun- 
ciation. Been is often improperly pronounced ben. 

Lesson XXX VIL — The word one needs particular 
attention. The main difficulty with these words of 
arbitrary pronunciation is in the spelling, but if the daily 
writing exercises are conducted in the manner we have 
advised, they soon become fixed in the memory, and 
present little trouble. 

Lesson XXXVIIL — Be careful about the word bds'- 
ket ; it is generally mispronounced bds'ket or bds'kit. 

Lesson XXXIX. — In the second line of this lesson we 
have the compound word easy-chair. Its component 
parts only are given in the vocabulary. Call attention to 
this use of the hyphen, and illustrate with other words 
on the blackboard ; for example, market-basket, derived 
from the preceding lesson. 

Lesson XL. — See that the quotation marks in this 
lesson do not lead to confusion as to who is speaking. 
The mother is speaking throughout the third, fourth, 
and fifth paragraphs. The laws of punctuation require 
that quotation marks should be placed at the beginning 
of each of these paragraphs, but at the close of the last 
one only. The danger is that the young child may 
imagine that the person speaking changes with each par- 
agraph, and confusion naturally follows. 

This lesson affords a good opportunity for the teacher 
to test the thinking power of the children. This should 
be done by pertinent and searching questions. 

Lesson XLIII. — In this lesson is presented an ex- 
cellent drill on the different sounds of a. In the fifth 
line, *'At half past eight," we have first a in at, then a 
in half, a in past, and e, a substitute for a, in eigJit. 



McGUFFEY'S FIRST READER. 55 

Drill on this phrase, and see that the four distinct 
sounds of a are clearly given. 

Test the class in the use of the hyphen in line six of 
page 58. The words bed and time have been given sep- 
arately in Lessons XXIV and XXIX. 

Lesson XLIX. — See that often is pronounced of'n. 
Both the t and the e are silent. 

Lesson XLVIII. — The letter q is here introduced, 
completing the alphabet. Teach that q is always fol- 
lowed by iL ; the combination has two sounds: that of 
kw, as in quiet, and that of simple k, as in pique. 

Lesson XLIX. — Teach that underscored words in 
writing mean the same thing as words printed in italics; 
that is, both are to be emphasized in reading. By 
careful "thought questions" on the part of the teacher, 
the children can be led to discover the proper word or 
phrase to be emphasized. 

Lesson L. — Laugh' ing is rarely pronounced properly, 
the a being given generally as a prolonged sound of 
short a ; as, Id-d-df'ing, or like a. Have it pronounced 
like a in father. Illustrate by pronouncing the two 
words a number of times alternately, dwelling a little on 
the a in each case to impress the sound. 

Lesson LV. — The word again is commonly mispro- 
nounced. "Poetic license" is frequently taken with it, 
even by many of the leading poets. Nevertheless, the 
only proper pronunciation of the word is agen' . It 
should never be pronounced agan' . 

Lesson LVI. — The seasons, spring, summer, autumn, 
and winter are frequently written incorrectly with a 
capital. The opportunity for teaching the proper 
method occurs in correcting the writing exercise accom- 
panying this lesson. Do not teach or even say what the 



56 READING. 

wrong form is, but if any pupil writes spring with a 
capital, call him up quietly and point out his error. 

Lesson LVII. — Call attention to the difference be- 
tween the spelling, pronunciation, and meaning of of 
and off. 

Lesson- LIX. — Here we have the unusual occurrence 
of two silent letters in one syllable, making whistle a 
little difficult to spell. 

Lesson LXIL — Really is the first word of three sylla- 
bles presented to the children. 

Lesson LXIIL — Be careful about the word pdr'ents ; 
it is frequently mispronounced polrents. 

Phonic Chart. — The chart is presented for the pur- 
poses of drill, and can be used at the discretion of the 
teacher as time and circumstances dictate. It is sug- 
gested that the entire school, either as a body or in 
separate classes, spend from three to five minutes in 
exercising on the elementary sounds. It will be time 
well spent. 



V. 

GENERAL REMARKS. 

GREAT care must be taken not to attempt too much 
in any one lesson. Here the teacher must be 
guided by his judgment as to the intelHgence of his 
class, and no specific directions can be laid down. In 
general, we would say, do not wait until you see the 
class becoming weary and the interest flagging. Stop 
while all are fresh and zealous. It is much better to err 
on the side of brevity than of its opposite. 

It is well to be thorough, and to make sure of one 
step before taking another, but do not make the mistake 
of going to the opposite extreme, and dwell on one topic 
or one lesson until the children are weary and disgusted 
with it. 

Analysis. — If you are using the Combined Method,* 
when the class has made some progress, say at the end 
of the first review, Lesson V of the Primer, begin the 
work of analyzing into their elementary sounds the words 
already learned and fixed in the mind. 

At first this work may prove quite difficult, and the 
results discouraging, but patience and perseverance will 
accomplish wonders in a few lessons properly taught, 
and it will be found that children take great interest in 
this branch of their study. The great trouble in the 



*The Phonic Method is synthetic, and does not admit of exer- 
cises under this head. 

(57) 



58 READING. 

teaching of Phonics is that many teachers are themselves 
unable to do what is required of the children : they 
adopt an unnatural tone, and distort the word under 
study so that, as a matter of course, the children fail to 
recognize the most familiar words. The teacher, then, 
should give the subject careful attention, and not attempt 
to teach a class until he is certain of his own ground. 
If understood, the subject of Phonics is very simple and 
very easily taught ; moreover, it is of great assistance to 
the child in acquiring new words, and should therefore 
not be neglected. 

We here introduce the method of treating the words 
found in Lesson I. Commence by pronouncing for the 
class the word cat rather slowly, in a perfectly natural 
tone, and with very distinct articulation, giving each 
letter its full value. Ask the class what the word is. It 
will, or should be, recognized at once. Pronounce it 
more slowly and with the same care, and have the class 
imitate you. Repeat the word a number of times, each 
time more slowly than before, the class always imitating 
you, until you have in this manner separated the word 
as nearly as possible into the elementary sounds <:, a, t. 
Care must be taken that the c and t are not slighted, 
and the a prolonged into a drawl, thus : c-a-a-a-a-a-t. 
Dwell equally on the c, the a, and the t, and insist on 
the class doing the same thing. Call up individuals 
until you are sure that all have the idea ; then say, 
''Listen carefully, children, while I pronounce the word 
cat as you have just done, and see who can give me the 
first sound that I make." 

Pronounce the word, making almost an entire separa- 
tion between the c and the a. If all fail to recognize 
it, give the c sound alone and have the cla.ss imitate 



GENERAL REMARKS. 59 

you. Follow the same plan with the a and /, and drill 
until the class is familiar with the three elementary 
sounds. Now have the children pronounce the word 
very slowly, as before, and tell them that you will write 
on the board the letters that stand for the sounds as 
they give them ; then, as they pronounce c-a-t, write the 
word witJi the diacritical marks. Reverse the process, 
and have the children give the sounds as you write the 
letters. 

Treat rat and and in the same way. The class should 
now be able to give all the elementary sounds of the 
first lesson. The characters representing these sounds 
are given in the vocabulary at the head of the lesson. 
Drill the class on these until the characters and their 
sounds are instantly associated in the minds of the 
pupils, so that when a sound is given they can at once 
point out its character, and when a character is pointed 
out they can at once give its sound. Continue these 
exercises throughout the book. 

Synthesis. — When the children have grasped the 
idea of analysis, and can readily resolve simple, familiar 
words into their elementary sounds, teach them how to 
reverse the process, and build up new words from the 
sounds they have learned.* This will afford interesting 
and profitable occupation for them at their desks. For 
example, from the elements given in the first four les- 
sons of the Primer can be formed the following simple 
words not found in the vocabularies : Mat^ that, inapy 
rap^ mad, had, Sam, pat, than, nap, tap, pad, ham, fat, 
pan, lap, sap, sad, ram. 



"^ Exercises in word-building may be commenced at once when 
the Phonic Method is employed. 



Ou READING. 

Show the children how to build these words in phonic 
order. Thus, the word cat is given in Lesson I. 
Write it on the board, and have the class pronounce it. 
Then, rubbing out the c, ask: **Now, children, who 
can tell me what sound to make to change cat to patf'^ 
Pronounce the word pat several times, giving the / 
sound emphasis, until some of the class indicate that 
they recognize the sound necessary to make the 
change. Select one of the pupils to give the sound of 
/. When it is given correctly, write both cat and pat 
on the board, at one side. Form fat and that in the 
same way, and write them in the column under cat 
and pat. 

Then, taking the words 7'an, in Lesson II, and cap 
and lad, in Lesson IV, as bases, form than, pan, map, 
nap, lap, rap, tap, sap, mad, pad, sad, and had. Write 
these words on the board in columns as they are formed, 
putting each under its proper base word. The remain- 
ing words are more difficult, for although the elements 
forming them are given, we find no word in the vocabu- 
laries to take as a basis, as we did in forming the other 
words. However, this will not be necessary after a few 
lessons, and the children will in time be able to form 
new words without the teacher's assistance. The new 
words thus formed must be those which belong to the 
ordinary vocabulary of the child. The children will 
recognize them at once as familiar, and will join in the 
exercises with zest. The spirit of competition as to who 
can make the most new words will arouse the interest 
of the class, and every new lesson, will broaden the field, 
so that work in this direction will never grow monot- 
onous. 

Place the new words formed in each lesson on the 



GENERAL REMARKS. 6 1 

board, and have the children use them by combining 
them into phrases and sentences, which should be 
written on their slates and read aloud. 

Diacritical Marks. — This is the proper place to 
begin the study of the diacritical marks. They should 
be used in the work of analysis every time the teacher 
or a pupil puts a word on the board, and the pupils 
should be required to use them in such slate exercises 
as are given them to perform under this head. 

The accurate knowledge of the power of all the dia- 
critical marks, as well as the mastery of all the sounds 
of the letters representing them, is necessary for the 
intelligent use of the Dictionary and the acquirement 
of a correct and elegant pronunciation. 

Note. — The elementary sounds of the English language are fre- 
quently represented by characters other than the primary ones 
which give them name ; thus, long a is represented not only by a, 
but also by e. A list of the ordinary substitutes, as recognized by 
Webster, will be found on page 96 of the First Reader; but unusual 
substitutes are sometimes encountered ; as, for example, e or ee for 
i, as seen in England and been. Often, too, conibinatiojis of letters 
are met with which seem to represent the elementary sounds. On 
examination, these combinations are frequently seen to consist of 
the primary character, or one of its substitutes, and sile7it letters. 
For example, the only substitute given for a, in the list on page 96, 
is e ; but we have the sound of a in the/, slez^>^, vam, gaz/ge, 
br^ak, maj/, gad, boque/, etc. If we analyze the above combina- 
tions, we find that in every instance either a or e really represents 
the sound, and that the other letters of the combination are simply 
not sounded. We have marked the silent letters in the examples 
quoted by making them italics. In boquet, the second u is in com- 
bination with q to form the sound of k, and is therefore not marked 
silent. 

Unusual substitutes and silent letters in combination are often 
confusing, and for the convenience of teachers we here insert a 
table for reference, presenting a complete list of the characters 



62 READING. 

representing the elementary sounds, both primary characters and 
their substitutes, with Webster's diacritical marks, and also the 
ordinary combinations of silent letters with the various sounds. 

The character or several characters representing each sound are 
italicized, as also are the silent letters used in combination with 
those characters. Other silent letters are unmarked in this way to 
avoid possible confusion. Only one example of each substitute 
and combination is presented. 

Vowels. 

a, as in h<7te. — Br^^^k, ']ai\, gao\, gauge, may, ieini, sleigh, they, 

bouqu<?/, cafi^. 
a, as in cat. — Pl^zd. 
a, as in ^sk. 

a, as in what. — Substitute for 5. 
a, as in harm. — A/i, aunt, guard., hearth, s^geant. 
a, as in ball. — Yiaul, groat, or, hougkt. 
a, as in care. — Pa/r, prayer, hear, heir, e'er, th<i're. 
e, as in he. — C^sar, \ea\Q, qjiay, see, seize, bel/<?f, p<?^ple, key, 

machme, physique. 
e, as in s<?t. — ^ny, said, says, feather, heifer, \eopa.rd, friend, bury, 

g//<?ss. 
e, as in th^?re. — Substitute for a. 
e, as in feint. — Substitute for a. 
e, as in ^r. — Earnest, hd.uteur, sir, w^rm, j^//rney, hum, m/rtle, 

co/onel, avt'zrdupois. 

Remark. — Webster makes a slight difference between e, as in 
err, and u, as in durn, or y, as in myrtle. The e is a compromise 
between e and the u or y sound in the examples quoted. 

e as in cafe. — Substitute for a. 

i, as in m/ce. — AisXe, height, \ie, eye, c\\oir, guide, sigh, f\y, buy. 

i, as in hit. — B(?<?n, pretty, sieve, w^men, tort(?/se, cham^/j-, busy, 

guinea., myth. 
i, as in machme. — Substitute for e. 
1, as in sir. — Substitute for e. 
6. as in f6'ld. — B^az^, ha///boy, cheva?/,r-de-frise, f^'am, y^^man, hoe, 

fioor, sh^wlder, sew, loic/, owe. 



GENERAL REMARKS. 6^ 

6, as in n^d. — Wh^rt, kn^7£/ledge, C(?ntime, madem^/selle. 

o, as in w^rm. — Substitute for e. 

6, as in s^n. — Substitute for u. 

6, as in ox. — Substitute for a. 

o, as in \.o. — Substitute for oo. 

o, as in \\o\{. — Substitute for do. 

oo, as in soon. — Rh^z/m, dixew, C3.noe, ma.noeuvre, den^z^r^ment, 

groi/p, ikixoiigh, t^, Vwo, rz/de, xiie, xecxint, i\cdot(\oi(xeux. 
oo, as in f6'^t. — W<:'lf, would, pz^t. 
u, as in c//be. — beauty, fei^dal, peiu, lieu, view, zue, suit, you, ewe. 

Remark. — Care must be taken not to pronounce u like oo. It 
is cube, not coob ; tube, not toob ; time, not too7i. 

u, as in b//t. — S^n, d^?^s, porpc'/se, bld7^d, t^z^ch. 

u, as in b//rn. — Substitute for e. 

u, as in rz/de. — Substitute for oo. 

u, as in pzzt. — Substitute for do. 

y, as in flj. — Substitute for i. 

y, as in nvKth. — Substitute for i. 

y, as in m/rtle. — Substitute for e. 

oi, as in b^/1. — Pcz^nant, ^jster. 

oi, as in \oix. — Substitute for wa. 

ou, as in ouX.. — VXough, owl. 

ow, as in loiu. — Substitute for o. 



Consonants. 
b, as in bd.d. — Ba.be. 

e, as in rat. — Substitute for k. 
9, as in rede. — Substitute for s. 

ch, as in <:/zurch, — Kig/iteous, na/ure, ques//on, dc:"erone. 
eh, as in c/iqxus. — Substitute for k. 
9h, as in r/zaise. — Substitute for sh. 
d, as in rt'ot. 

Remark. — This letter is nev^er silent except in Wednesday and 
handkerchief. 

f, as in /ate. — /'^^rase, S2iPph\xQ, dxd,\ighi. 

g, as in gQi, — GhosX.. 



64 READING. 

g, as in ^^em. — Substitute for j. 

gs. — This combination is represented by 5, as in CA^ist. 

h, as in //e. — Who. 

hw. — This combination is represented by wh, as in whdX. 

j, as in /ack. — 6^em, x?ige, soh//er. 

k, as in /^ite. — Cat, <://orus, s\ck, antigi^e, h.oiigh. 

ks. — The combination is represented by x, as in <?.rpect. 

kw. — This combination is represented by qu, as in ^z^een. — Choir. 

1, as in /ight. — Fe//. 

m, as in ifiovQ. 

n, as in ;zine. — Kftee. 

n, as in linger. — U«cle, li«k. 

ng, as in siw^er. — Bri;/^. 

fi, as in canon (Spanish). — Substitute for (n) y. 

p, as in pup. — Yixccough, di//zthong. 

q is always followed by u, and the combination qu is a substitute 

for kw or for k, as ^z/een, anti^^^e. 
r, as in red. — Ore, wrong, poorer. 

Remark. — The middle r of poorer has a double sound. 

s, as in ^ame. — Cede, trar^, chin/^". 

§, as in waJ. — Substitute for z. 

sh, as in .y^ut. — Oreanic, A^ia, nego/iation, oced.n, so^'al, nau^^ous, 

ten^zbn, pa//ent, no;f/ous, .jure, pa^^ion, lu.rz/ry, chsLiSQ, con^d- 

entious, conjrz'ence. 
t, as in /one. — Hisst'^, 77zomas, ph/h'isic: 
th, as in //zing. 
th, as in wi//z. — Eiste</</fod. 
V, as in -z/ane. — Lea?/^, q/", Ste^^en. 
w, as in wet. — Assz^age. 
wh = hw, as in w/zat. 
X = ks, as in ^.rpect. 
^ = gs, as in <?.rist. 

y, as in _you. — Famil/ar, hallehyah, canon, 
z, as in ^-one. — Wa.s, sa.ys, cloth^'y, mu5^, sacrifir^, di^<rern, .ran- 

thic. 
zh. — These letters are never written together, but the sound of the 

combination is heard in a^'ure, menagerie, biybu, rou^^, measure, 

transi//on. 



GENERAL REMARKS. 65 

Note. — Some words differ so radically in their written charac- 
ters, and the sounds which compose them, that their pronunciation 
can be indicated most readily by respelling them : as, for exam- 
ple, once {wuns). Words of this class are therefore respelled in 
the vocabularies of the Readers. 

Script Exercises. — In copying the script exercises, 
and also in writing the regular reading lessons, see that 
the children use capital letters wherever they appear in 
the books, and that they insert the proper punctuation 
marks. It is a mistake to allow young children to 
write without attention to both these points. If they 
are required to observe them from the beginning, the 
rules governing them will be readily understood when 
the proper time comes to study them. 

Capital Letters. — The rules for capital letters are 
simple, and the principal ones should be taught orally 
early in the course. See Harvey's Revised English 
Grammar, pages 14-17, Rules I, IV, V, VI, VII, IX, 
X, XI, and XV. 

Punctuation. — The subject of Punctuation is a very 
difficult one to understand in all its bearings, and no 
attempt should be made to teach its formal rules in 
primary classes. A few of the marks, such as the 
period, interrogation point, exclamation point, hyphen, 
and quotation marks should be explained briefly, and in 
simple language, as they are met with in the text. The 
semicolon and comma, especially the latter, involve 
many rules, exceptions, and exceptions to exceptions. 
The consequent complications are understood by very 
few teachers, and it is absurd to try to teach them to 
little children. It is sufficient to answer, should the 
children ask what they mean, that they are marks used 
to help us understand the meaning of the writer. 

E. M.-6. 



66 READING. 

Many teachers seem to have no idea that this is the 
purpose, and the only purpose, of punctuation. They 
seem to think that the various marks are used to indicate 
rhetorical pauses, and make the children pause and 
count one for a comma, two for a semicolon, three for a 
colon, and four for a period. It would be just as sensi- 
ble if they continued the ''system," and counted five 
for an interrogation mark and six for an exclamation 
point. This counting is not only ridiculous, but it aids 
to defeat the very object of the reading lesson. It dis- 
tracts the child in his endeavor to grasp the meaning of 
the sentence he is reading ; whereas, he should be left 
perfectly free to concentrate his mind on this one point, 
and when he does get the meaning of the sentence 
clearly, its proper expression will follow naturally with- 
out artificial aids. 

Constant attention should be paid to articulation and 
pronunciation. Do not allow a child to ^'d.y fas iox fast^ 
goen for going, agin or agan for again (agefi), etc. 
Daily drill on the Phonic Chart (pages 95 and 96 of 
McGuffey's Revised First Reader) will accomplish more 
in this direction than many teachers seem to imagine. 
This exercise need not take more than from five to ten 
minutes of each day, and the entire school may be 
drilled together. Only one or two sounds should be 
studied at a time. 

Do not carry preciseness in articulation and pronunci- 
ation to the extreme of interfering with a child in his 
endeavor to grasp the thought of what he is reading, 
however, for the latter is the important aim, and should 
take precedence of all others. If a child makes an 
error in articulation or pronunciation while reading, do 
not interrupt him yourself, or allow him to be inter- 



GENERAL REMARKS. 6/ 

rupted by other pupils, until he has finished; then call 
his attention to the mispronounced word, and have him 
give it correctly. 

Correct all errors the children make in pronunciation 
in all conversational exercises. To pronounce correctly 
is of even greater importance than to spell well, for 
where one word is written many are uttered in conversa- 
tion. A correct pronunciation is counted as a mark of 
culture. 

If the class shows a tendency to read in a monotonous 
manner or in an unnatural tone, have the books closed, 
and set the children to talking about the lesson. Lead 
them to express a sentence in the words of the book ; 
then have the same sentence read from the book. In 
this way, the children may be led to see for themselves 
the difference between a natural and an unnatural man- 
ner of reading. 

Where the Combined Method is employed, the use 
of the illustrations in the language lessons preliminary 
to a reading lesson should be continued until the chil- 
dren have acquired the faculty of associating new words 
and the ideas they represent without such aid. It is a 
mistake to continue this method after it has ceased to 
be necessary, as it then retards rather than assists. Just 
when the method should be dropped, depends largely 
upon the intelligence of the class, and each teacher 
must use his own judgment in the matter. 

It is probable that you will find some pupils in the 
primary classes who have already had some instruction 
in reading by the alphabet or spelling method. These 
will be very apt to stop in their reading to spell doubtful 
words. This should be stopped at once. Neither 
should a child be allowed to guess at a word. Both of 



68 READING, 

these faults show plainly that the word recalls no definite 
idea to the child's mind ; that is, that the idea and its 
symbol are not instantly associated, as the fundamental 
principles of all correct methods demand that they 
should be. 

Before the children are called upon to read the lesson, 
the teacher should have reasonable assurance that the 
new words have been studied by the children. This is 
necessary to avoid hesitation, and hesitation is the 
source of many bad habits. 



VT. 

McGUFFEY'S READERS.— CONCLUDED. 



McGuffey's Second Reader. 

WITH the completion of the Primer and First 
Reader, the children have acquired a vocabu- 
lary of more than seven hundred words ; and if the drill 
on phonics has received proper attention, they should 
be able to read new matter composed of simple words, 
with little hesitation. In the Second Reader, therefore, 
another feature is introduced. It will be noticed that 
each lesson is in itself instructive, either intellectually or 
morally. The domestic virtues, morals and manners, 
letter-writing, natural history, and physics, receive much 
attention, and open a wide and very interesting field for 
object lessons and original compositions. The intelli- 
gent and conscientious teacher will not neglect the 
opportunities afforded for imparting much useful infor- 
mation in connection with these lessons ; but it should 
be borne in mind that the first object is to lead the chil- 
dren to think for themselves, and to produce as much 
original work as possible. This work should then be 
supplemented by the teacher: wrong ideas should be 
carefully corrected, and such additional instruction given 
as the teacher may think within the understanding of 
the class. Care must be taken as to the last point. 
Keep on the safe side, and never talk ''over the heads" 

(69) 



70 READING. 

of the little ones, otherwise your time is thrown away, 
and interest is lost. 

The same attention should be given to phonics and 
the diacritical marks as heretofore, and to articulation, 
expression, and the daily writing of a portion of the 
reading lesson. Paper and lead pencil, or pen, may be 
introduced in place of the slate. The teacher who con- 
tinues these writing lessons as suggested, will be well 
repaid in finding that the class fall naturally into the 
proper spelling of words, and the proper use of capitals 
and the various punctuation marks, without special drill 
upon the^se subjects. Then, as before stated, when the 
proper time comes to study the formal rules, they will 
be readily understood and remembered. 

It is suggested that the teacher, in drilling on pronun- 
ciation, write each day's vocabulary on the board, with 
the proper syllabication, diacritical marks, and accentua- 
tion, and have each word pronounced by the class in 
concert and individually, distinctly and correctly. After 
a short drill of this nature, write the words without divi- 
sion into syllables, and without diacritical marks or 
accents, and again have the words pronounced as before. 

The teacher should always explain to the class the 
meaning of any words which he thinks may possibly be 
misunderstood before assigning an advance lesson to be 
studied, and the class should be carefully questioned on 
these words when the lesson is recited. Making sen- 
tences from given words is a valuable exercise to secure 
the proper use of words. It is a good test of the child's 
comprehension of their exact meaning. 

Lesson I. — The abbreviations Mr. and Mrs. are intro- 
duced in this lesson. As suggested in the preface, these 
should be carefully explained, not only as to their mean- 



McGUFFEY'S SECOND READER. "J I 

ing and use, but as to the reason for their use. Write 
the words Mister and Mistress on the board; explain 
that the latter came in time to be shortened to Missis, 
and that it is now customary to write Mister, Mr.; 
and Missis, Mi-s. 

Lesson II. — This lesson will afford a good opportunity 
for an object lesson on the various colors. The teacher 
should provide himself with a prism, and, if it is a 
bright sunshiny day, throw the colors on the wall, where 
they can be pointed out. He should also have a small 
brush, and the water-colors red, blue and yellow ; then, 
by mixing red and blue, blue and yellow, and yellow 
and red, he should illustrate how the secondary colors, 
violet, green, and orange, are formed. Teach that the 
absence of all color makes an object black, and that 
when all the colors are combined in proper proportions 
they produce white. 

Note. — A very interesting and simple experiment will illustrate 
this. Cut out a circle of card-board, and paint the seven colors of 
the spectrum, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet 
upon it, in their order, giving each color the same space proportion- 
ally that it occupies in the spectrum formed by the prism. Bore 
two small holes either side of the center ; insert a string through 
these; twist the string into a spiral ; and then, by alternately pulling 
and relaxing it, cause the card to revolve back and forth as a boy 
does his miniature circular saw. When the card is in rapid motion, 
the colors blend and the card appears nearly white [the imperfec- 
tion of the several colors prevents absolute purity] ; when it stops, 
the colors re-appear. 

Several other experiments may be found in almost 
any good book on Physics or on Object Lessons which 
will serve to interest the class, and at the same time 
give valuable information. 



72 READING. 

Teach that compleine7ttary colors are any two colors 
which, combined, will produce white ; thus, green and 
red, blue and orange, violet and yellowish green, violet 
and orange yellow are complementary colors; that is, 
the one complcme7its or fills out what is lacking in the 
other to make white. 

Lesson III. — Have this letter copied on slate or 
paper. It may be used as a guide for future lessons on 
letter-writing. By the time they are ready to leave the 
common school, the children should know how to ex- 
press themselves naturally, clearly, and concisely in 
either a business or a friendly letter. Letter-writing in 
its perfection is a rare art attained by few, but children 
can not begin at too early an age to learn its rudiments, 
and few things that they learn in the school-room will 
prove of greater practical utility in their after lives. 
Teach them gradually how to date a letter properly, and 
why it should always be dated ; where and how to write 
the various proper forms of introduction ; to arrange the 
various topics about which they are to write in order, 
and to commence each new topic with a separate para- 
graph ; where and how to write the various proper 
forms of conclusion and signature ; how to fold a letter 
properly; how to insert it in the envelope properly; 
how to direct the envelope properly ; where to place 
the stamp, and when to use more than one stamp. 

A good exercise for the children is to change any of 
the lessons, or parts of them, into the form of a letter. 
Also, when a child asks for a particular favor, the 
teacher may grant it if the child will put his request in 
the form of a letter. 

The abbreviation o clock, for "of the clock," should 
be explained. 



McGUFFEY'S SECOND READER. 73 

Lesson IV. — Stones about the stars are almost as in- 
teresting to most children as fairy tales. A judicious 
selection of some of the most important of the simple 
truths of Astronomy should be made. If opportunity 
offers, teach the school which is the north star, and how 
to find it by means of the ** pointers" in the '* Great 
Dipper." 

See that this lesson is read naturally. The proper 
expression can be attained only by leading the children 
to apprehend the true meaning. 

Lesson V. — Care must be taken with the pronuncia- 
tion of imn'iitcs {inin'its) and Nczv'foii?id-land. The in 
the latter is of course silent. The word is often im- 
properly accented and pronounced Ncw-fozvnd' land. 

This is an excellent lesson to be put in the form of a 
letter for composition drill. 

Lesson VI. — In the script exercises in this lesson and 
elsewhere in the book, varied forms of the capital letters 
are presented simply that children may become familiar 
with them and recognize them, as they will have to do 
later in life in reading different styles of handwriting. 
To this same end children should be required to read 
each other's written exercises. Neither compel the 
pupils to follow the exact forms in the book, nor criti- 
cise them if they do. A legible, smooth, regular, and 
rapid handwriting is the point to be aimed at. Aside 
from the qualities mentioned, individual characteristics 
should not be interfered with. Individuality should be 
encouraged rather than condemned. 

Lesson VII. — It is not presumed that every teacher 
of a district school is the possessor of a microscope. 
If, however, you are so fortunate as to own one, or can 
borrow one, this lesson can be made intensely interest- 

E. M.-7. 



74 READING. 

ing and very instructive, and the object lessons can be 
extended to various familiar insects, plants, etc. 

Lesson VIII. — Utilize this lesson by the introduction 
of a few striking and authentic stories illustrating the 
instinct of animals. Have the children write and hand 
in stories of their own. A selection of the best of 
these may be read aloud in the class. 

Lessons XII and XIII. — In regard to these and similar 
lessons of a moral nature, it is well to bear in mind 
what is said by Mr. Sweet in his work on teaching: 
"One of the most effective ways of giving moral lessons 
is through the medium of well-selected stories. * A 
moral lesson,' says Bain, 'may be wrapped up in a tale 
and brought home with an impetus. Stories of great 
and noble deeds have fired more youthful hearts with 
enthusiasm than sermons have.' 'To hear about good 
men,' says Richter, 'is equivalent to living among 
them. For children there is absolutely no other 
morality than example, either seen or narrated. ' When 
you read a story or fable, let your pupils draw their 
own inferences and do their own moralizing. It is not 
best for you to spoil the effect by drawing conclu- 
sions." 

Lesson XXIV. — This lesson may be made the basis 
of object lessons on the varied occupations of the 
farmer, and on the different kinds of cloth, cotton, 
linen, etc. 

Lesson XXV. — Teach how the clouds are formed. 
The rising mists of morning are familiar to almost every 
child who lives in the country. 

Lesson XXIX. — See that tihiy is properly pronounced 
as indicated by the diacritical marks. It is frequently 
mispronounced My or tehty. 



McGUFFEY'S THIRD READER. 75 

Lesson XXXIII. — Be careful as to the pronunciation 
of sewing. There are two verbs, sew isu), which have a 
very different meaning from sew {so). 

Lesson XXXVI. — Against should be pronounced 
a-genst' and not a-gdnst' . 

Lesson XL. — Explain the abbreviation ne'er. 

Lesson XLII. — See that pupils in writing this lesson 
do not use capitals in writing the words summer and 
autumn. Tell the children that this story is an allegory. 
Explain in simple language what an allegory is, and 
what this allegory teaches. 

Lesson XLVII. — The word landscape will probably 
need careful explanation. 

Lesson LVIII. — Explain what a dialogue is. See 
Webster's Dictionary. This lesson may be memorized 
and acted by two pupils. 

Lesson LIX. — Explain when did' st takes the place of 
did, and see that its articulation is distinct. 

Lesson. LXIII. — Why are Spring and Winter spelled 
with capitals in this lesson? (Harvey's Revised English 
Grammar, Art. 240, 3). 



McGuffey's Third Reader. 

In this book, lessons of the same instructive character 
as those in the Second Reader are continued, but the 
thought is usually deeper, keeping pace with the de- 
velopment of the child's mind. 

It is not thought necessary to tabulate new words in a 
vocabulary beyond the middle of this book. By this 
time, the children should be able to pronounce at sight 
such new words as are introduced. In place of the vo- 



"](> READING. 

cabularies, therefore, definitions of the most difficult 
words in each lesson are given, with diacritical marks to 
aid in pronunciation. These definitions are necessarily 
not exhaustive, — that definition only is given which is 
applicable to the word in connection with the context. 
The teacher should not confine the class to the words 
defined in the Reader, but should teach the class how 
to use the dictionary, and require pupils to consult it 
in studying their lessons whenever a word is encountered, 
the meaning of which is not perfectly clear. 

As recommended in the Preface, there should be a 
daily drill on articulation, and exercises for this purpose 
are presented in the Introduction. 

It is thought unnecessary to give detailed instructions 
as to particular lessons in this book. It will be seen 
that the lessons furnish abundant opportunities for 
practical composition work, which should be kept up 
till the end. How suggestive for composition, for ex- 
ample, is Lesson XXXI. 



McGuffey's Fourth Reader. 

Sixteen pages of the introductory matter of this book 
are devoted to exercises in articulation and vocal culture. 
These exercises should not be ''gone over" once and 
then dropped, but vocal culture should have a place in 
each day's exercises. A critic, in writing of this point, 
says: ** Nearly all teachers in our common schools teach 
reading, but the training is confined chiefly to the eye. 
Something is done in expression, but it is incidental, 
and few ever attempt any thing that looks to the de- 
velopment of the voice." While it is not necessary 



McGUFFEY'S FOURTH READER. 7/ 

that a teacher himself should be a skilled elocutionist in 
order to attempt such development, yet he certainly 
should have correct ideas of the vocal organs and of the 
proper way to train them. Murdoch's Analytic Elocu- 
tion, which contains the best method known for this 
purpose, ought to be studied by every teacher of read- 
ing who is deficient in a knowledge of the art of elocu- 
tion. Work in the dark often does more harm than 
good, for good reading, like good singing, becomes an 
impossibility with a poorly trained voice. Particular at- 
tention is directed to what is said on page 250 in regard 
to making reading a healthful exercise. 

Continue the plan recommended for the Third Reader 
in regard to dictionary work. In this connection, the 
study of synonyms should be introduced. Occasionally 
have the class write the reading lesson of the day, sub- 
stituting synonyms for every word defined in the book, 
and for any others that may possibly be not fully under- 
stood. Again, in reading a lesson, have one pupil read 
a sentence, and require another to repeat the exact idea 
in his own words. Carefully correct all sentences so 
rendered, whether written or spoken, which are ungram- 
matical, tautological, or otherwise clumsy and ungrace- 
ful. This study of synonyms will prove very beneficial 
in extending the child's vocabulary, and in giving him 
a good command of language. It should be continued 
through all the advanced classes. 

The questions at the close of the selections, under 
the head of '* Exercises, " are intended to be merely 
suggestive. The object aimed at is to be certain that 
the children fully grasp the ideas of the author, and also 
to enforce attention on the part of the class to what is 
being read, and thus to train the memory. A good 



yS READING. 

exercise in the same direction is to have the books 
closed after the lesson has been carefully read, and then 
have the pupils repeat the lesson in their own words, 
giving the substance of every paragraph as completely 
as possible. If time is too pressing to conduct this 
exercise orally, have each member of the class write the 
lesson from memory. It is not proposed to have the 
children memorize the exact words of the author, but 
to render the exact ideas of the lesson as completely 
as possible in their own language. 

Short biographical sketches are given of nearly every 
author where his name first appears in the book. These 
sketches may be supplemented by the teacher to advan- 
tage whenever he happens to know any additional inter- 
esting facts in regard to the lives or writings of the 
authors. 

Have the class bring in short selections of their own 
choosing from the writings of the most celebrated 
authors mentioned, and supplement the regular reading 
lesson from time to time by having these selections read 
aloud. In this way a taste for good literature may be 
cultivated early in life, and good seed may be sown in 
fertile soil, which, if neglected, will produce nothing but 
weeds. 

The children in this Reader should be required to do 
certain work in- connection with the reading lesson pre- 
paratory to studying the text-book on grammar. They 
may be taught here to classify words. Have them make 
lists of the names of objects, actions and qualities. Teach 
the use of pronouns as substitutes, and the correct posi- 
tion of words and phrases in sentences. Have the chil- 
dren observe words so closely as to be able to tell what 
they modify. Also, to classify sentences as to their use, 



McGUFFEY'S FIFTH AND SIXTH READERS. 79 

as declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclama- 
tory. This kind of work ought to be continued until 
the children are properly prepared to begin the formal 
study of grammar. 



McGuffey's Fifth and Sixth Readers. 

In these two books, the character of the selections 
again undergoes a decided change. In the choice of 
matter composing them, two objects dominated : first, to 
present typical selections from the writings of as many 
of the foremost authors in the English language as pos- 
sible; and second, to afford as much good material for 
elocutionary drill as possible within the limits of a 
school reader. The Sixth Reader is especially rich in 
selections adapted to elocutionary needs ; it contains as 
good a selection as can possibly be made for this pur- 
pose, and, in fact, is used in many schools in place of a 
"Speaker." Both books contain ample instructions 
and exercises for vocal drill in their Introductions, which 
can be and should be used with good effect. 

Biographical sketches of all the authors represented 
are given where the author's name first appears. Use 
these sketches simply as a basis or outline to be filled 
out in the composition work of the class. 

The teacher should lead his pupils, not only to com- 
prehend the thought of what he reads and to give it 
utterance in his own words, but also to observe and to 
criticize intelligently the form of expression. The words 
and phrases of the text, as well as the historical and 
biographical notes, should be studied with attention. 
The teacher himself should make a careful study of 



8o READING. 

every selection in the Fifth and Sixth Readers, and 
should make marginal notes in his private copies of the 
books for his own use, calling attention to figures of 
speech, well turned phrases, examples of forcible and 
beautiful language, etc., etc. This kind of work is 
essential if a teacher would make the reading lessons 
useful as specimens of the best English. 

Benjamin Frankin, in his autobiography, tells how he 
materially improved his style of writing, and his exam- 
ple is well worthy of imitation. He used to read a por- 
tion of the ^'Spectator" carefully; then, laying it aside, 
he would try to write what he had read, as nearly as 
possible, in the words of the author. He would then 
compare his writing with the original, and note the dif- 
ferences of expression. After studying his errors care- 
fully, he would again write the selection from memory, 
and again compare his production with the original, and 
so on, time after time, until he attained a satisfactory 
result. He pursued this plan until he formed a most 
excellent style of his own, modeled on that of the best 
writers of the English language. Probably no better 
way of improving one's style could be devised, and 
Franklin's plan would prove most useful in the school- 
room. 

Be careful not to allow children to copy what they 
read. Make them write from memory, compare with 
the original, and rewrite. In these exercises, originality 
of expression is not to be condemned, but rather 
encouraged, provided the original expression is perfect 
in all respects. At the same time, awkwardness of ex- 
pression, the wrong use of terms, redundancy, omission 
of words necessary to clearness or force, the improper 
transposition of words or phrases, etc., etc., may be 



McGUFFE V 'S FIFTH AND SIXTH READERS, 8 1 

pointed out, and thus the children will rapidly learn to 
recognize what constitutes a good and what a bad 
style. 

There is one danger about composition work and lan- 
guage exercises which should be carefully avoided : that 
is, in the attempt to impart elegance to language, all 
vigor and interest may be smoothed out of the writing. 
Vigor and interest are of vastly greater importance than 
even grammatical expression or spelling, and elegance 
should be made to take its proper place as a mere orna- 
ment. It is important only in the sense that the polish 
on a piece of rich furniture is important ; and, as the 
quality of the wood is much more to be considered than 
the finish which is given it, so the thought displayed in 
a composition should receive more consideration than its 
outward form. 

Matters of weighty import should not be lost sight 
of in attention to petty details. The proper place for 
the study of the latter is in the primary classes in com- 
position work. In the higher classes they should call 
for no more thought on the part of a pupil than does 
the way he holds his pen. 

Harvey's Grammar should be used as a book of refer- 
ence to learn the correct use of figures of speech, and 
the dictionary should be constantly used to study the 
proper use and choice of words. Synonyms are, as a 
rule, by no means identical in meaning, and yet very 
frequently pupils are allowed to use indiscriminately, as 
though they were identical in meaning, such words as 
recollect and rcmembej', inference and conclusion^ attachment 
and affection, attain and obtaiji, infections and contagions, 
etc., etc. The dictionary and the grammar should be 
used as books of reference in connection with the study 



82 READING. 

of the reading lessons more than Is now the custom. 
The proper kind of study in this direction can not fail 
to impress upon pupils the value of a good grammar 
and a good dictionary, and the necessity of their careful 
study if accurate and elegant diction is ever to be ac- 
quired. 

If supplementary reading be desired, you can go into 
no better field of literature than that of the authors 
here represented. Encourage the pupils to read as 
much as possible at home, giving them hints as to the 
best works of each author. There is no room for the 
study of English Literature, unfortunately, in the ordi- 
nary common school, but if the Fifth and Sixth Readers 
are studied and used as they should be, they will go 
very far towards taking the place of a regular text-book 
on that subject. 

The Publishers realize that many schools and many 
homes are without the books of reference necessary to a 
proper understanding of some of the selections, should 
the text alone be given. In all cases, therefore, where 
it seemed there could be a possible want in this direc- 
tion, notes have been added at the close of selections 
which give all the information necessary for intelligent 
reading. 



SPELLING 



VII. 

McGUFFEY'S SPELLING-BOOK. 

Note. — The teacher is referred to what has been said in regard 
to this subject on page 22. 

WHILE the Spelling-book is thought to be use- 
less in primary classes, it is on the other hand 
quite essential in the higher classes, even if the only 
object be to give pupils the thorough command of a sim- 
ple practical vocabulary ; for it is not to be presumed 
that any one set of Readers presents a complete list of 
the words which are used in every-day life, or that it 
presents a sufficient number of words of any particular 
class in such a way that they may be recognized easily 
as a class, and that the rule for spelling all words of that 
class may thus be deduced. This is the particular prov- 
ince and use of the Spelling-book. 

Children below the Fourth Reader class are, as a rule, 
not old enough to understand the laws which govern 
Spelling, or to reason about the analogies of words ; 
hence, work in spelling, up to this point, should be con- 
fined to the words included in the reading lessons and in 
the various written exercises. This work is of course 
general in its nature, and necessarily without plan, ex- 
cept that the simpler words are encountered in the read- 
ing lessons at an earlier period than those which are 
more difficult. 

(85) 



86 SPELLING. 

If the teacher has been careful to correct all errors, — 
that is, to accept nothing short of perfect spelling in all 
written work, — the children, by the time the Fourth 
Reader is reached, will have acquired a fair vocabulary 
of simple words, and will be prepared to begin the in- 
telligent study of the Spelling-book. 

The work now becomes specific in nature. Words 
are to be considered in certain well-defined classes, and 
carefully analyzed, compared, and contrasted. The 
general laws of spelling and pronunciation are thus best 
learned and remembered, while the peculiarities of un- 
usual spellings and pronunciations are brought out and 
impressed upon the mind. 

In teaching the Spelling-book, have every lesson 
written as well as spelled orally. By this plan, each 
member of the class is compelled to spell every word of 
the lesson ; the diacritical marks are learned more thor- 
oughly and more readily ; and, finally, the children learn 
how to spell sooner and more accurately than they pos- 
sibly can do should the work be confined to oral spell- 
ing alone. 

If spelling exercises in addition to those in the book 
are given, the teacher should be careful not to burden 
the minds of the children with long lists of unusual and 
difficult words. Work of this description is time thrown 
away: first, because the chances are that the child will 
never have occasion in all his life to write these unusual 
words ; and second, if he ever should have occasion to 
write them, after any considerable lapse of time, he 
probably will have entirely forgotten how to spell them. 
And, presuming that such words are remembered, what 
advantage are his spelling lessons to one who can spell 
PhytelepJias or PJitJiisipnewnonia readily, but constantly 



USE OF THE SPELLING-BOOK. 8/ 

writes loosc^ meaning losi\ and makes no distinction be- 
tween dessert and desert, or bass and base, or relict and 
relic, or cJioir and qidre? The time of the spelHng 
lesson should be devoted especially to those words which 
are liable to occur in ordinary composition, and not to 
useless puzzles in orthography ; but words occurring in 
lessons in geography, and scientific terms in common 
use, should be spelled in connection with the recitations. 

In the English language, difficulties in spelling arise 
chiefly from two causes: (i) the presence of silent let- 
ters, or letters whose sounds are not heard in the spoken 
word, and (2) the use of substitutes, several characters 
often representing the same sound, and the same char- 
acter often representing different sounds. (See pages 
61-65.) In order to accomplish effective work, words 
should be studied with especial reference to these two 
chief causes of difficulty. The Eclectic Spelling-book is 
particularly well adapted to the study of these points. 
All silent letters are cancelled by a light line, and the 
proper diacritical mark is given to every letter that de- 
mands one. In writing spelling lessons and dictation 
exercises, children should be required to cancel the 
silent letters, and to give each one that is sounded its 
proper diacritical mark, as indicated in the book. 

Each accented syllable also should be marked. As 
elsewhere stated, pronunciation is even more important 
than spelling, since many more words are spoken than 
written. It is in this connection that oral spelling has 
its chief value, and the teacher should require that every 
word which is spelled orally should be pronounced prop- 
erly and distinctly. 

McGuffey's Eclectic Spelling-book, Revised Edition, 
may be divided to advantage into a three-years' course, 



88 SPELLING, 

extending through the Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Reader 
classes. 

First Class. — If this plan be followed, the work of 
the First Class should include the first fifty-eight lessons. 
Begin with Lesson I, and drill on the sounds and 
diacritical marks. The identification of the simple ele- 
mentary sounds with the characters that usually repre- 
sent them is the first step to be accomplished, and 
should be mastered before even the slightest difficulties 
of spelling are presented. If pupils have been drilled 
properly on diacritical marks in the Readers, the first 
three lessons of the Speller will require no especial 
attention. In Lesson 4, substitutes and silent letters are 
first presented. Gradually new sounds, new marks, and 
new combinations of silent letters are introduced, and, 
by the time the children have finished Lesson 57, they 
will have been drilled upon all the distinctive diacritical 
marks used in Webster's Unabridged Dictionary. 

The remarks at the beginning of lessons are put there 
for a purpose, and should not be neglected. Usually 
they explain the particular point which the lesson imme- 
diately succeeding is intended to illustrate. Each lesson 
should be studied with reference to its accompanying 
remark, and in those instances where the remark sets 
forth a rule of spelling or pronunciation, the children 
should memorize and recite it, — as, for example, the 
remark at the beginning of Lesson 32. 

Second Class. — The work of the second year should 
extend to Lesson 171. Especial attention is to be given 
this year to homophonous words, the proper accent of 
words of more than one syllable, and to suffixes and 
prefixes, but exercises on the diacritical marks and silent 
letters should not be abandoned. 



CLASSES. 89 

Explain carefully what the word homophonous means, 
and in each lesson on homophonous words require the 
pupils first to spell and define the words orally, and 
then to write sentences, each of which shall include one 
or more words of the lesson. Brevity should not be 
encouraged at the expense of clearness. Each sentence 
should be of such a nature as to show that the pupil 
understands, perfectly the meaning of the word used, and 
pupils should be made to rewrite every sentence that is 
ambiguous in this respect. 

Third Class. — The work designed for the last year is 
devoted principally to pronunciation, but many lessons 
are interspersed on '' Words which require care in 
Spelling." The latter lessons contain, for the most part, 
words of every-day use, such as one may be called upon 
to spell at any time. A very few lists only are given of 
long and unusual words, and no words are presented as 
mere puzzles. 

Lesson 201, on synonyms, is suggestive of other les- 
sons of like character. The pupils should write sen- 
tences showing the fine distinctions between the various 
synonyms, and also when they are interchangeable and 
when not. Exercises of a similar nature have been sug- 
gested in connection with the reading lessons. These 
exercises, if properly conducted, will give pupils a fine 
command of language. 



E. M.-J 



WRITING 



VIII. 

ECLECTIC SYSTEM OF PENMANSHIP. 

WRITING is second in importance only to read- 
ing. It has been urged under the instructions 
for teaching reading that lessons in writing should go 
hand in hand with the former from the very beginning. 
Indeed, as Mr. Thompson wxll says in his preface to the 
Hand-book to the Eclectic Penmanship: ''Neither 
WTiting nor spelling should be regarded as distinct 
branches of learning. They are only a necessary part 
of language teaching, and the method of teaching them 
should be adapted to the best methods of teaching read- 
ing and language in general." 

Writing has for its object the expression of thought 
in written words, in order that this thought may be con- 
veyed to the minds of others through the eye. There- 
fore, the first aim in wTiting should be legibility. No 
matter what other qualities writing may possess, if it is 
illegible it is useless. The next aim should be rapidity 
of execution. ''Time is money," and if a man's busi- 
ness demands that much time be devoted to writing, 
rapidity is of but little less importance than legibility. 
Next, but a long way after these points, comes beauty. 
The first two may be considered the necessities, and the 
latter the luxury, of penmanship. 

The Eclectic System of Penmanship is founded upon 
these principles. The style of the letters is severely 
plain and simple, and the method of instruction sug- 

(93) 



94 WRITING. 

gested aims at legibility first, and then at rapidity and 
beauty. We can not give a better idea of what this 
method is than by quoting in full from the author's 
Preface to the new edition of the Hand-book : 

*'The New Eclectic Penmanship, and the accompany- 
ing Hand-book, are the result of a thorough revision 
and reconstruction of Thompson and Bowler's Eclectic 
System of Penmanship by L. S. Thompson. 

''When the system was first published, in 1870, the 
present author had practiced for years the plan of giving 
whole letters and whole words as the first lessons in 
writing for little children, in opposition to the then pre- 
vailing method of first teaching lines as elements, then 
principles or parts of letters, then letters, and finally 
words. 

"This word, thought, or language method of teach- 
ing writing to beginners has only lately found favor in 
the East, as an adjunct to the " Quincy Method," but 
it has been practiced in several western cities for the last 
twelve or fifteen years. 

"The New Eclectic Penmanship claims superiority in 
its adaptation to the advanced methods of teaching other 
subjects. 

"The writing or the spelling of columns of unmean- 
ing words must always be distasteful. The writing and 
the spelling of words should be taught in sentences 
which embody a thought within the capacity of the 
child, at the very outset of the course. 

"The analysis of letters is not the first step in learn- 
ing to write, any more than an analysis of words is the 
first step in learning to talk. The first step is mere 
imitation. Analysis comes at a later period, and it 
should always be as simple and natural as possible. 



DESCRIPTION OF THE BOOKS. 95 

"Capital letters should be introduced early in the 
course, because children need them in their daily exer- 
cises." 

For the benefit of those teachers who are not familiar 
with the Eclectic Penmanship, we here give a brief 
description of the several books of the regular course. 

No. I is in large hand, and contains all the figures, 
all the small letters but two, and over one hundred 
words. Each letter is given once separately, but almost 
all the drill is required in simple words, the longer ones 
generally being built up from the shorter ones. A very 
simple explanation of each letter is suggested at the 
head of each page, but no rigid analysis is attempted in 
this book. 

No. 2 introduces the capitals in classified Qrder, and 
about ninety new words, some of them being quite 
short, and others longer. The long words are generally 
derived from the short ones by means of prefixes and 
affixes, thus giving a valuable drill in the derivation of 
words as well as in writing. The analysis is still general, 
as in No. i. 

No. 3 contains about forty-five connected phrases and 
short sentences. The capitals are classified according to 
difficulty in execution, and a closer analysis into the 
elements of the figures, small letters, and capitals, is in- 
dicated by the use of small figures. 

No. 4 contains forty-six phrases and sentences, graded 
as to length. The size of the writing is a medium 
hand, or standard business size, the short letters being 
about one tenth of an inch, or two and a half milli- 
meters in height. In this book, the head-lines are 
used only about one third of the distance down the 
page. 



96 WRITING. 

Nos. 5 and 6 are books of still longer sentences than 
those in No. 4. The capitals are still arranged in clas- 
sified order. These two numbers are duplicated in 
smaller hand for girls for the accommodation of teachers 
who prefer for them copies in a smaller hand. 

These six numbers are all that are necessary in order 
to teach a good, plain, and serviceable handwriting ; but 
where time and circumstances allow, the higher num- 
bers, 6)^, 7, 8, and 9 should be used, especially if 
pupils are to be trained for mercantile life. The higher 
numbers are as follows: 

No. 6^ contains twenty-four double line copies ex- 
tending clear across the page. Merely writing short sen- 
tences and single lines once across the page can never 
produce a free, corresponding, business style. The 
copies in this book give short and concise rules for the 
use of punctuation marks in writing. 

No. 7 is a book of commercial and other useful forms, 
and definitions of commercial terms. Copies i, 2, 3, 6, 
8, 10, and 18, define Note, Maker, Endo7'ser, Order, Re- 
ceipt, Day-Book, and Draft, respectively, while copies 4 
and 5 are forms for notes ; 7, an order for goods ; 9, a 
receipt in full; 11, a day-book entry; 12 and 13, the 
face of a cash-book; 14, a ledger heading; 15, a due- 
bill; 16 and 17, an invitation and a reply; 19, a sight 
draft; 20, a poetical quotation; 21 and 24, prose quota- 
tions; 22 and 23, advertisements. No. 7 is not dupli- 
cated in smaller hand, for the reason that business 
writing should not be contracted below the standard 
size. 

No. 8 is a book of words in medium hand, designed 
to exhibit a great variety of capitals. The Eclectic Pen- 
manship is based on one simple business style of writing, 



WRITING MATERIALS. 97 

and this book is made only for the accommodation of 
those who prefer a variety of forms for capitals and small 
letters. 

No. 9 is a book of bold, off-hand writing, and German 
Text, Old English, and Marking Letters. 

The Exercise-book. — Besides the regular copy-books, 
each child should be supplied with an Exercise-book 
prepared to accompany this series. The Exercise-book 
is one of the most important of the series, and contains 
more than seventy different exercises for developing the 
various movements. Each class of exercises is explained 
in the Hand-book. It is adapted to all grades, and 
should be used daily in connection with the other books ; 
for which purpose it is made larger than the others, and 
with a thick cover, so that the copy-book may be kept 
inside of it when not in use. 

Writing Cards. — Every teacher should have a set of 
Writing Cards ; and from these, so far as the form of 
letters is concerned, the lesson should be given. As 
each letter is analyzed and a full printed explanation 
given, any one can teach the forms of the letters from 
these charts as well as the boundaries of states from 
maps. The Writing Cards, seventy-two in number, 
contain but a single letter, figure, or exercise on each 
side, large enough to be seen across the largest school- 
room. The analysis is indicated by figures, and the ex- 
planations are printed in large type under each letter. 
They are indispensable to teachers who do not write 
well on the blackboard. 

Pens, for school use, should have smooth, even 
points, fine enough to make the delicate hair-lines, and 
sufficiently elastic to make the shades even and clear. 
Teachers should keep a supply of pens, and not allow 

E. M.— 9. 



9^ WRITING. 

pupils to write with large, coarse ones, designed only for 
writing on coarse paper. Most new pens, being more or 
less oily, should be wet and wiped dry before using, 
that the ink may flow more freely. None but the best 
pens should be put into the hands of pupils. The 
Eclectic Pen meets all requirements of the school-room. 

Pen-holders should be light and plain, holding the 
pen firmly. About one third of a medium-sized pen 
should be inserted in the holder. 

Good black ink is the best; it should be dark 
enough to enable the pupil to see the delicate hair-lines, 
and sufficiently fluid to flow freely. Common writing- 
fluid and cheap preparations are not fit for the school- 
room. When evaporation causes ink to thicken, it 
should be diluted with soft water or cold tea. The ink- 
wells should be covered when not in use, replenished 
every week, and often thoroughly cleaned. 

In taking ink, the pupil should be careful not to allow 
the pen to touch the inkstand, dipping it only to the 
shoulder, and slowly removing it. If it is removed too 
quickly, the attraction of the fluid will leave too much 
ink on the pen ; if too slowly, only a small quantity of 
ink will remain on the pen. 

Pen-wipers. — Every pupil should be provided with a 
suitable pen-wiper; and after the pen is used, it should 
be wiped dry. One made of dark cloth will answer 
every purpose. A very cheap one can be made of 
black cloth cut in a circular form, and folded twice, 
making it a quarter circle of four leaves. By stitching 
four such pieces together at their right-angular points, 
a pretty and serviceable wiper will be formed, and the 
inside folds can be kept free from dirt, grease, etc. They 
may be kept with the other materials, as common prop- 



WRITING CLASSES. 99 

erty to be distributed at each lesson, or the pupils 
may be allowed to have them at their desks. 

Blotting-paper. — Every pupil should also be pro- 
vided with a piece of thick blotting-paper, about three 
inches wide and six inches long. This may be used, 
not only for absorbing blots, but as a rest for the right 
hand, to prevent soiling the paper. It should be kept 
in the copy-book. 

Habits of neatness should be required in wiping the 
pen and in taking care of materials, as well as in the 
care of the copy-book. 

Classification. — In ungraded schools, the pupils 
should be classified in writing as well as in reading or 
arithmetic. To do this, at the commencement of the 
term the teacher may pass each pupil a slip of paper, 
and on it require him to write his name, the month, and 
day, and after this the slips may be collected and ex- 
amined. 

Place the best writers in the first division, and the 
poorest, and those who have never written, in the 
second division, never having more than two classes in 
the same room. Select such a book for each class as is 
best adapted to the largest number of pupils in it ; and 
while giving out the books, pens, etc., and teaching 
position, pen-holding, and giving movement exercises, 
the two classes may be instructed together ; but when 
the regular copy is taught, proceed with each class sepa- 
rately, so far as instruction is concerned. 

After explaining the copy that the first class is to 
write, direct the pupils to practice it, and, while they 
are doing this, explain the copy for the second class 
and set them to practicing it. Then inspect the writing 
of the first class, illustrate the errors, and direct them 



lOO WRITING, 

to practice again. Now give attention to the second 
class, and so on, keeping both classes at work together, 
that you may economize time, and that a part of the 
school may not be engaged in other affairs liable to jar 
the desks of those engaged in writing. 

"When and how LfOng to Write. — Any time may 
be taken for the writing lesson that suits the convenience 
of the teacher, except the first few minutes of the 
session, when the hand is unsteady from walking or 
play, and the last half hour in the day, when the pupils 
are apt to be too weary to pay attention, and the light 
may be inadequate. 

The length of the lesson shoiild usually be about half an 
hour daily ; but, as the hand of the beginner soon tires, 
it is better to give young pupils shorter lessons, and 
have them more frequently, than to require them to 
practice when weary or in an incorrect position. With 
older pupils, who have formed the habits of sitting in a 
correct manner and of moving the pen freely and easily, 
the lesson may be continued an hour if desired. 

Awakening an Interest. — The mere matter of im- 
parting instruction is not the only work of the true 
teacher. He will awaken and keep up an interest ; he 
will be full of enthusiasm in his work, infusing life and 
energy into the minds of his pupils ; he will awaken and 
foster a spirit of emulation. This he can do in various 
ways, and if he is thoroughly alive to his work, he will 
not be content until he has learned some means of ac- 
complishing it. But, to aid the inexperienced, we will 
give a few of the many ways that have proved suc- 
cessful : 

At the commencement of the term, the pupils may 
be directed to write their names, with the year, month, 



AWAKENING AN INTEREST. lOI 

and day, or some motto, verse, or sentence on a slip of 
paper, which is to be filed away, and at the end of the 
term the same is to be written again, and compared with 
the first. These specimens, filed away term after term, 
serve as milestones to mark the progress of the pupils, 
and will be exhibited with pride by the successful 
teacher. 

Another way is to have the class write several groups 
of letters, words, and sentences out of school, each one 
trying his best. Several of the finest specimens, with 
a number showing the greatest effort, may be selected 
and neatly pasted in a blank-book, with the pupil's name 
attached. These specimens may be ornamented with 
circles, squares, scrolls, or figures of different designs, 
made with a ruling pen, using inks of different colors. 
In one instance, where this plan was followed, every 
pupil whose name appeared in the book asked to carry 
it home to show to his parents, and this increased the 
interest and enthusiasm to such an extent that soon 
books were produced containing specimens from every 
pupil. 

By another method, great freedom and rapidity, as 
well as accuracy, may be obtained. The teacher gives 
out some word or sentence, and directs the class to 
write it as many times as possible within a given time, 
and write it well. Careful attention to form, height, 
slant, width, spacing, and movement should be required, 
never allowing the writing to degenerate into scribbling. 
Soon the rules will become habits, requiring muscular 
rather than mental effort. 

For full details as to the methods of conducting the 
writing lesson, a description of the letters and figures, 
and how to teach shading, spacing and form, the teacher 



102 WRIT2XG. 

is referred to the "Hand-book to the New Eclectic Pen- 
manship." It is important that every teacher who uses 
the copy-books should make a careful study of this 
Hand-book in order to accomplish the best results. 
Speaking of this point in his Introduction, Mr. Thomp- 
son says : 

' ' That the results obtained in Penmanship, in most 
of our public schools, are not what they should be, is 
evident from an inspection of the examination papers of 
most of the graduating classes, and from the oft-repeated 
remark of merchants, that, when boys come from the 
public schools to the counting-room, their handwriting is 
impracticable, and soon undergoes an entire change. 

''The fault lies in the bad arrangement and adapta- 
tion of books, in the incorrect methods of teaching 
which they inculcate, and in the fact that many of the 
best teachers in our common schools have had no oppor- 
tunity to fit themselves properly for teaching Penmanship. 

* ' There is, therefore, a demand for something better, 
and it is believed that there will be great improvement 
in the results obtained if the plan of the Eclectic Series 
is carried out as directed in the Copy-books, and in this 
little Hand-book, which has been prepared to aid those 
who wish to qualify themselves to teach this branch 
most advantageously. 

* ' The best penman may be a very poor teacher ; and, 
on the other hand, the most successful teacher may be a 
very ordinary writer ; and, as ' a lame man may be able 
to point out the way, though unable to walk therein,' 
so it is believed that any one who has sufficient ability 
to teach other branches successfully, can teach writing 
well by becoming thoroughly acquainted with its princi- 
ples, and insisting on a strict adherence to them." 



ARITHMETIC 



IX. 

A RITHME TIC. —First Yea r. 

THE subject of Arithmetic is usually considered easy 
to teach, probably because it seems to possess a 
more definite aim than most of the common branches. 
But, nevertheless, it is a subject in regard to which the 
young teacher is liable to make serious errors of judg- 
ment, both as to the method adopted and the manner 
of conducting recitations under that method. 

It has become somewhat the fashion to adopt new and 
fanciful ideas in teaching, and many young teachers are 
misled into thinking that unless a method is new it can 
not be the best. It should be borne in mind, however, 
that change is not necessarily pi^ogi'ess. Any and every 
method must be subjected, first, to the laws of common 
sense as applied to the development of a child's mind; 
and, second, to the test of actual experience in the 
class-room, before it can be proclaimed the best, or even 
a good, method. 

The method presented in this Manual is neither purely 
nor partly theoretical in nature, but is the method of 
practical, successful teachers of long experience. It has 
stood the test of the school-room for years, and has 
witnessed the growth and failure of many other methods, 
some of which attained a wide but short-lived popu- 
larity, while others are at work to-day, befogging the 
minds of little children, or converting them into mere 

(105) 



Io6 ARITHMETIC. 

figure-making machines, and in either case creating a 
hfe-long distaste for mathematics. 

It is difficult, not to say impossible, to lay down an 
arbitrary rule as to how much work shall be attempted 
in any one year in ungraded schools, since the condi- 
tions, — such as the length of the school year, the 
amount of time that can be devoted to arithmetic, the 
number, intelligence, and age of the class, etc., — differ 
so widely in the numerous schools. The divisions of 
work recommended in this Manual are not to be con- 
sidered as arbitrary, therefore, but only as meeting the 
average requirements of common schools. They are to 
be used simply as a guide, and should be modified at 
the discretion of the teacher as circumstances may 
demand. 

The first step should be to examine the entire school 
carefully, and find out, if possible, just how thorough 
the instruction of the more advanced pupils has been. 
Then classify the pupils according to their knowledge 
of the subject, entirely irrespective of age or of the in- 
equality of numbers in each class. 

The work that is here presented under the heads 
''First Year" and "Second Year" should be thor- 
oughly mastered, whether it requires one year, two 
years, or three years. If the entire school be suffi- 
ciently advanced, the instruction here suggested for the 
primary classes may be omitted altogether, but the 
teacher should be thoroughly satisfied on this point 
before assigning pupils to higher classes. 

Older pupils, whom it may be necessary to place in 
the primary classes at first, will naturally be able to 
advance more rapidly than the younger ones, and 
should be transferred to higher classes as they show 



FIRST YEAR COURSE. _ lO/ 

themselves capable of such advancement. By having 
such pupils recite in both a higher and a lower class for 
a time, these transfers need not disturb in the least the 
daily routine of the programme. 

In the first class, besides those who have never studied 
Arithmetic, put all who have been poorly trained in the 
elementary processes. - It will be economy of time and 
labor to do this, even if you have to include the entire 
school in this division for a time ; for, in arithmetic, 
above all other studies of the common school course, it 
is of the utmost importance that one step shall be 
thoroughly understood before the next is attempted. 
The first two years' training is of more importance than 
all the rest the child receives. 

Do not attempt to have the chilelren 7ise a book in the 
primary class. — A book should not be used, because no 
book contains, and no book can be made to contain, the 
kind of instruction necessary the first year. 

Do not teach the figures in the fii^st lessons ^ and do not 
allow the children to do any written work ; bnt teach orally, 
illustrating every operation, at first, by means of various 
objects. — The instruction should be entirely oral, and 
should deal altogether at first with concrete numbers. 
The little child can not grasp abstract ideas. It is true 
you can teach him to repeat, "2 and 2 are 4;" **2 
from 4 leave 2;" *'2 times 2 are 4;" and **4 divided 
by 2 equal 2." But, without the proper prehminary 
work, these words can not possibly convey any clear mean- 
ing to his mind. This kind of instruction in a primary 
class is simply machine drilling on abstract numbers and 
words which convey no ideas, or at best a mere jumble 
of ideas to the child's mind. It is one of the worst, 
and at the same time one of the most common, faults 



I08 ARITHMETIC. 

in the teaching of arithmetic, and it is one which is very 
apt to disgust pupils with the subject from the outset. 
On the other hand, if the proper method of teaching is 
pursued, which may properly be called the object 
method, the children are taught to think ; they will be 
interested at the very beginning, and they will be kept 
interested by this method until they are successfully 
carried to the point where the object method is no 
longer necessary, and their minds are ready to grasp 
the abstract, through careful preliminary drill on the 
concrete. 

Begin the teaching of arithmetic, then, with objects, — 
blocks, balls, marbles, sticks, books, kernels of corn, 
apples, shells, pebbles, etc., etc. The more varied your 
assortment of objects the better. The numeral frame 
and other mechanical devices are useful, but should not 
be used exclusively, or the work will become monot- 
onous and tiresome. 

Teach the concrete digital mtmbers in regular order, from 
one to ten inclusive, illustrating each miniber by conrspond- 
ing groups of objects. — The first step is to teach number- 
ing ; that is, so to train the child that he can instantly 
give the number of any group of objects not exceeding 
ten, at sight, and ivithont conntiiig. Experience has 
proved that nearly every child old enough to commence 
school has at that time a very good knowledge of the 
numbers i and 2. It is therefore unnecessary to spend 
much time on these numbers. However, the class 
should be thoroughly tested on them before proceeding 
to take up the number three. The average child com- 
mencing school is unable to recognize at sight, without 
counting, the number of a group of objects exceeding 
three, and from this point the successive steps towards 



FIRST YEAR COURSE. ' IO9 

ten must be made slowly and carefully. Do not take 
up a new num.ber until the class has proved itself per- 
fectly trained on all that precedes. Each day's work 
should include a review of all the previous work, so as 
to keep the different numbers fresh in the mind. 

Do not allow a child to count by ones to find how many 
objects there are in a group, but teach him to recognize the 
group as a whole. — Teach what three means by re- 
peatedly combining two and one, and one and two, into 
groups of three apples, three blocks, three marbles, 
three books, three pencils, three lines, three dots, etc., 
etc., and then immediately separating these groups again 
into their component parts, two and one, or one and 
two, apples, blocks, etc. When the group three in- 
stantly suggests the idea three to the entire class, teach 
four in the same manner by combining and separating 
one and three, three and one, and two and two objects. 
Make all the possible combinations and separations of 
integers forming each number, using as wide a variety 
of objects as possible. As soon as the class is suffi- 
ciently advanced, have the children do the combining 
and separating of objects for themselves. 

If you begin by teaching a child to count, he is very 
apt to get an erroneous idea by considering the group 
of objects individually instead of collectively ; and, as he 
points them out, — either actually or mentally, — ''one, 
two, three, four, five," his tlure means the third object 
enumerated, and his five means the fifth ; so that five, 
to his mind, really means one particular object — the 
fifth — in place of a group of five objects, irrespective of 
order or individuality. Not until the child has learned 
to associate a number with its group, should he be 
taught to count the objects in that group. If the child 



no • ARITHMETIC. 

once forms the habit of counting by ones in order to 
answer such a question as, " How many blocks in this 
group?" it will be almost impossible to correct his 
error. In place of adding figures at sight, when that 
step of the work is reached, he will stop to count on his 
fingers to obtain the result, and will probably never be 
able to add rapidly and at the same time accurately. 
Therefore, we would suggest that counting be deferred 
altogether until the class can satisfactorily number any 
group including ten or less. When you do teach the 
class to count, have a group of objects counted forward 
and backward, and in promiscuous order. In this way, 
you will avoid the danger of having the number associ- 
ated with one particular object. 

Teach Additio7t and Subtraction togctJicr. — The one is 
the reverse of the other, and when taught together they 
help the child to understand each process more readily 
than if they were taught separately. It is not necessary 
to teach the signs until abstract numbers and written 
work are commenced. 

Do not teach Midtiplication and Division in the ptimary 
class. — They do not help in the understanding of addi- 
tion and subtraction ; but, on the contrary, are apt to 
confuse the child by the number of different processes 
presented to his mind at once. 

Teach the concrete digital numbei's ivitJioiit objects. — 
When, by the use of objects before the eyes oi the 
class, you have taught all satisfactorily to number groups 
at sight, and to add and subtract all the possible combi- 
nations within the limit of ten as a total, the children 
are ready to take the next step. From combining and 
separating objects they can see, lead them to combine 
and separate groups of objects that they can not see, 



1 



FIRST YEAR COURSE. I I I 

but can readily imagine, such as animals, houses, trees, 
tools, toys, or any objects with which they are familiar. 
Repeat the same processes that were used with the ob- 
jects before the class in combining and separating, and 
in the same order. Give numerous exercises on each 
number, with constant reviews, until the entire class 
can perform each operation with great accuracy and 
rapidity. 

Teach the abstract digital numbers orally. — When you 
are satisfied with the results of the work thus far, take 
the next step by simply dropping the names of the 
objects, and teach the abstract digital numbers orally in 
the same order that you taught the concrete. Accuracy 
and rapidity are the important aims, and the children 
should be drilled until they can give the answers to all 
the possible combinations and separations instantly, and 
apparently without stopping to think. 

Teach the digital figures, and the use of the signs plus and 
minus and the sign of equality. — During the last part of 
the first year, when the children are thor- 
oughly proficient in the preceding steps, 
teach them the written characters that 
stand for the numbers which they have 
learned to use orally. Write the corre- 
sponding words and figures on the board 
in two columns, as in the margin, and 
explain that we use figures in arithmetic 
in place of words for the sake of con- 
venience and rapidity. Exercise the 
class in making the several figures on 
their slates and on the board, at first sep- 
arately, and then in simple problems involving both con- 
crete and abstract numbers. 



One, 


I 


Two, 


2 


Three, 


3 


Four, 


4 


Five, 


5 


Six, 


6 


Seven, 


7 


Eight, 


8 


Nine, 


9 


Ten, 


lO 



1 1 2 ARITHME TIC. 

To teach the signs, write on the board an example 
similar to the following: 

4 and 2 are 6, 
4 plus 2 equal 6. 
4 + 2=6. 

Explain that in place of the word phis, the sign + is 
commonly used, and that it is to be read plus; thus, 
4+2 is read "4 plus 2." In the same way explain 
that the sign ^=, called the sign of equality, stands in 
place of the words ''is equal to," or equals; thus, 4 + 
2 = 6, is read: ''4 plus 2 equals 6." Teach that the 
sign — , called the minus sign, is used in place of the 
word less or iniims, thus : 

6 — 5=1) is read • 

6 less 5 equals I, or 
6 minus 5 equals i. 

Have the class practice with the signs until they are 
used as readily in reciting as the words for which they 
stand. 

The following table will be found useful for slate and 
board exercises. Have the class fill out the blanks. It 
may also be used for oral drill, and at the close of the 
year children should be able to give the answers in- 
stantly. 

I -j- I = ; therefore, 2 — i = 



2 4- I or I -(- 2 = ; therefore, 3—1= ; 3 — 2 = 



3-fiori+3= ; therefore, 4 — i = ; 4 — 3 = 
2 -f 2 = ; therefore, 4 — 2 ^^ 



FIRST YEAR COURSE. 



113 



4+1 or 1+4 = 
3 + 2 or 2 + 3 = 


therefore, 
therefore. 


5 — 1= ; 

5 — 2= ; 

6-1= ; 
6-2= ; 

6-3 = 


5- 
5- 

6- 
6- 

7- 
7- 

7- 

8- 
8- 
8- 

9- 
9- 

; 9- 

9- 
; 10 

; 10 
; 10 
; 10 


4 = 
3 = 


5+1 or 1 + 5 = 
4 + 2 or 2 + 4 = 

3 + 3 = 


; therefore, 
therefore, 
therefore, 


-5- 
-4 = 


6+1 or 1+6 = 

5 + 2 or 2 + 5 = 

4 + 3 or 3 + 4 = 


, therefore, 
; therefore, 
; therefore, 


7-1= ; 

7 — 2= ; 

1 — 3= ; 


6 = 

-5 = 
-4 = 


7+1 or 1 + 7 = 

6 + 2 or 2 + 6 = 

5 + 3 or 3 + 5 = 

4 + 4 = 


; therefore, 
; therefore, 
; therefore, 
; therefore. 


8-1= ; 
8-2= ; 

8-3 = 
8-4 = 


-7 = 
-6 = 

-5 = 


8+1 or 1+8 = 
7 + 2 or 2+7 = 
6 + 3 or 3 + 6 = 
5 + 4 or 4+5 = 


; therefore, 
; therefore, 
; therefore, 
; therefore. 


9—1 = 
9 — 2 = 

9 — 3 = 
9 — 4 = 


-8 = 

-7 = 
-6 = 

-5 = 


9 + I or I + 9 = ; 
8+2 or 2 + 8= ; 

7 + 3 or 3+7= ; 
6 + 4 or 4 + 6= ; 

5 + 5= ; 


therefore, 
therefore, 
therefore, 
therefore, 
therefore. 


10 — I = 
10 — 2=: 
10—3 = 
10 — 4=: 
10—5 = 


— 9 

— 8 

-7 
-6 



This is the extent of the work that should be at- 
tempted in the primary class; and if the instruction is 
as thorough, and the reviews are as frequent as they 
should be, this amount of work will occupy the full 
year. It is granted that much greater apparent advance 
can be made in this time, and that children can be 
taught the names of numbers as high as a hundred or 

E. M.-IO. 



1 14 ARITHMETIC. 

more, and to write the figures representing them ; but 
the learning of names and the making of figures do not 
of themselves imply the gaining or developing of ideas, 
and classes forced too rapidly over the preliminary 
ground without thoroughly understanding each step as 
they advance, will sooner or later show the bad effects 
of this method of teaching. 



X. 

ARITHMETIC— Second Year. 

THE class should now be prepared to commence the 
study of Ray's New Primary Arithmetic. If the 
teacher prefers to do so, the first six lessons on numer- 
ation and notation may be omitted until the close of 
Lesson XXXVII. 

Lessons VII, VIII, and IX are a review of the first 
year's work, and the advance work begins with Lesson 
XI. Teach each number from 1 1 to 20 inclusive, just 
as you taught the numbers from i to 10, using the 
tables and examples in the book as supplementary to 
the oral drill. 

If the first year's work has been thoroughly done, the 
advance from 10 to 20 will be comparatively easy and 
rapid. But the work should still be exhaustive, and 
should include counting by ones, twos, threes, etc., 
forward and backward ; also, all the possible combina- 
tions and separations with a total of 20 or less. 

Lesson XI introduces the new number, 11. To teach 
II, take a group of ten objects, such as pencils, blocks, 
sticks, or cards, and tie them in a bunch for convenience 
of handling. Before doing this, however, be sure that 
the entire class recognizes the fact that there are ten 
objects in the group or bunch. Then, holding up 
the bunch, ask: "How many sticks are in this 
group?" Holding up one stick, ask: "How many 
sticks do I now hold up ? " Holding up one bunch and 

(115) 



Il6 ARITHMETIC. 

one stick, ask: ''How many sticks are ten sticks and 
one stick? Now, if I take away one stick (illustrating), 
how many sticks are left?" 

Continue the illustration of this number with various 
objects, and by means of dots, lines, crosses, etc., on 
the blackboard, until the children are familiar with 
eleven as composed of one (group of) ten and one unit. 

Teach the class the characters that stand for eleven, 
writing both the word and the figures on the board, 
thus: Eleven, ii. The class are now prepared to take 
up Lesson XI in the book. 

Preface each of the succeeding lessons by similar oral 
work, illustrating 12, 13, 14, etc., up to 20, as these 
numbers are introduced, constantly reviewing with each 
lesson the numbers already learned. 

If the class have not already been taught the reading 
and writing of numbers up to lOO, Lessons II to VI 
inclusive should here be introduced, and the drill con- 
tinued until the class are perfect. 

The different values attached to a figure by its posi- 
tion in the order of tens or in the order of units, may 
be illustrated in the following manner, so as to be easily 
understood and remembered : 

Hold up one bunch of ten objects, and ask: "How 
many objects in this group?" When the question is 
answered, write the number 10 on the blackboard. 

Hold up one bunch and one object, and ask: *'How 
many (sticks) do I now hold up?" When the answer 
eleven is given, reply "Yes, and eleven is made up of i 
ten and i," holding up the bunch and the single object. 
"Now I will write the figures that stand for one ten and 
one,'' writing the number 11 on the board under the 
number 10, as you say ''one ten and one.'' Continue in 



SECOND YEAR COURSE. 



117 



this way with the consecutive numbers up to 20, 
illustrating with objects, and writing the corresponding 
figures in the column on the board. Then show the 
children, again illustrating each number with objects, 
that, in the combination 10, the i stands for i (group 
of) ten, and the o, which means nothing, or naught, 
stands for no ones or 2inits. That in the combination 1 1 
the first I stands for i (group of) ten, and the second i 
stands for one unit. That 12 stands for i ten and 2 
units, etc. Finally, that 20 stands for 2 tens and no 
units. 

There will be no difficulty in illustrating 21, 22, 23, 
etc., 31, 32, 33, etc., in the same manner, by means of 
the tied bunches of ten, up to ten tens, or 100. The 
children should then understand clearly, without a for- 
mal statement, that the figure in the second order from 
the right tells how many tens, and the figure in the first 
order how many ones, there are in a number. 

The following tables can be used to advantage ^s 
review exercises, both in oral and written work, having 
the children fill the blanks : 



10 -f I or I -|- 10 = 

9 + 2 or 2+ 9 = 
8 + 3 or 3 + 8 = 
7-1-4 or 4+ 7=3 
6 + 5 or 5 + 6 = 



therefore, 11 — i 

' II — 2 

II— 3 

" II — 4 

II — 5 



10 

9 
8 

7 
6 



il-l-l or 1 + 11 = 

10 -f- 2 or 2 -]- 10 = 

9 + 3 or 3+ 9 = 

8 + 4 or 4+ 8 = 

7 + 5 or 5 + 7 == 

6+ 6=: 



therefore, 12 — i 
12 — 2 
12 — 3 
12 — 4 

12 — 5 
12 — 6 



12 — II 
12 — 10 
12 — 9 
12— 8 
12 —^ 7 



ii8 



ARITHMETIC. 



12 -f- I or I -f- 12 

ii-)-2 or 24-11 

lo-f 3 or 3 4- lo 

9 + 4 or 4 + 9 

8+5 or 5+ 8 

7 -)- 6 or 6 -f 7 



therefore, 13 — I 
13 — 2 
13 — 3 
13 — 4 

13-5 
13 — 6 



13 — 12 
13 — II 
13 — 10 

13— 9 
13- 8 

13—7 



13+ I or I + 13 

12 -f- 2 or 2 -|- 12 

11 + 3 or 3 + II 

10 + 4 or 4+10 

9 + 5 or 5 + 9 

8 + 6 or 6 + 8 

7+ 7 



14 + I or I + 14 
13 + 2 or 2+13: 
12 + 3 or 3+ 12 
II+4 or 4+11: 
10+5 or 5 + lO: 
9 + 6 or 6 + 9 
8 + 7 or 7+ 8 



I5_|_ I or 1 + 15: 
14 + 2 or 2+14 
n^Z or 3+ 13 
12 + 4 or 4 + 12 : 
II + 5 or 5 + II: 
10 + 6 or 6 + lO: 
9 + 7 or 7 + 9 
84- 8 



16 + I or I + 16 

15 + 2 or 2+ 15 
14 + 3 or 3+ 14 
13 + 4 or 4+ 13 
12+ 5 or 5 + 12 



therefore, 


14—1 = 


; 14—13 


(< 


14 — 2 = 


; 14 — 12 


11 


14 — 3 = 


; 14 — II 


K 


14 — 4 = 


; 14 — 10 


li 


14—5 = 


; 14—9 


(( 


14 — 6 = 


; 14—8 


( ( 


14—7 = 




therefore, 


15 — 1 = 


; 15— H 


(( 


15 — 2 = 


; 15 — 13 


il 


15-3 = 


15 — 12 


(< 


15-4 = 


15 — II 


(< 


15-5 = 


15 — 10 


(( 


15-6 = 


15— 9 


a 


15 — 7 = 


15- 8 


therefore. 


16—1 = 


16 — 15 


(( 


16 — 2 = , 


16 — 14 


(( 


16-3 = 


16—13 


(< 


16 — 4 = 


16 — 12 


<( 


16-5= ', 


16 — II 


(( 


i6_6= ; 


16 — 10 


(( 


16 — 7 = ; 


16 — 9 


(( 


16 — 8 = 





therefore, 17 — i 
" 17 — 2 

17-3 
17 — 4 

17-5 



17 — 16 

17 — 15 
17— 14 

17 — 13 
17 — 12 



SECOND YEAR COURSE. 



119 



II 4- 6 or 6 -f- II = 

10 -(- 7 or 7 -f- 10 ^ 

9 + 8 or 8+ 9 = 



therefore, 17 — 6 

17-7 

17 — 8 



17 — II 
17 — 10 
17— 9 



I7 + I 


or 


1 + 17 = 


; therefore, 


18 — 1 = 


18-17 = 


16 + 2 


or 


2-f 16 = 




18 — 2 = 


18 - 16 = 


15 + 3 


or 


3+15 = 




18-3 = 


18-15 = 


14 + 4 


or 


4+14 = 




18-4 = 


18—14 = 


13 + 5 


or 


5+13 = 




18-5 = 


18-13 = 


12 + 6 


or 


6+ 12 = 




18 — 6 = 


18—12 = 


II + 7 


or 


7 + II = 




18 - 7 = 


18— II = 


10 + 8 


or 


8-f 10 = 
9+ 9 = 




18 — 8 = 
18-9 = 


18—10 = 


18+ I 


or 


1 + 18 = 


therefore, 


19-1 = 


; i9_i8 = 


17 + 2 


or 


2+ 17^ 




19 — 2 r= 


19 — 17 = 


16 + 3 


or 


3+16 = 




19 — 3 = 


19—16 = 


15 + 4 


or 


4+15 = 




19 — 4 = 


19—15 = 


14+5 


or 


5 + 14 = 




19 — 5 = 


19 — 14 = 


13 + 6 


or 


6+13 = 




19 — 6 = 


19—13 = 


12+7 


or 


7+12 = 




19 — 7 = 


19 — 12 = 


II + 8 


or 


8+ II = 




19 — 8 = 


, 19 — II = 


10 + 9 


or 


9 + 10= , 




19 — 9 = 


19 — 10 = 



19 -|- I or I -{- 19 =- 

18 -f 2 or 2 -f 18 = 

17 + 3 or 3+ 17 = 

16 -f- 4 or 4 -j- 16 =: 

15 + 5 or 5 + 15 = 

14 -(- 6 or 6 -f 14 = 

13+7 or 7+13 = 
12 -f- 8 or 8 -f 12 = 
11+9 or 9-j-ii = 

10 + 10 := 



therefore, 20 
20 
20 
20 
20 
20 



1 rr3 

2 =r 

3 = 

4 = 

5 = 

6 = 

20 — 7 = 
20—8 = 
20 — 9 ^ 
20 — 10 = 



20 — 19 
20 - 18 
20 — 17 
20 — 16 
20— 15 
20 — 14 
20 - 13 
20 — 12 
20—11 



Do not attempt to teach the combinations and separa- 
tions in this complete way beyond the total of 20 at 



1 20 ARITHMETIC. 

this point. The class should be drilled, however, before 
taking up the subjects of multiplication and division, 
on adding and subtracting the digital numbers to and 
from all numbers within the limits of lOO. 

Special drill in addition should be given to those 
combinations by which the addition of the digit carries 
the total into the ten next higher than the number to 
which the digit is added ; as, for example, in the fol- 
lowing table : 



19 


19 


19 


19 


19 


19 


19 


19 


19 


I 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 




18 


18 


18 


18 


18 


18 


18 


18 




2 


_3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 






17 


17 


17 


17 


17 


17 


17 






3 


_4 


5 


6 


_7 


8 


9 








16 


16 


16 


16 


16 


16 








4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


_9 










15 


15 


15 


15 


15 










5 


6 


7 


8 


9 



14 


14 


14 


14 


6 


7 


8 


_9 




13 


13 


13 




7 


8 


9 






12 


12 






8 


9 

1 1 
9 



SECOND YEAR COURSE. 121 

Similar tables for each ten numbers, 21 to 29, 31 to 
39, etc., up to 91 to 99, should be written on the 
board, and the class should be drilled on them until all 
can give the results instantly without coimting. 

Drill the class also in adding columns of digital num- 
bers whose totals shall be 100 or less; and teach the 
pupils to write the totals at the foot of the column 
properly, with the unit figure of the sum directly under 
the column added. 

Commence with a few numbers at a time, and extend 
the columns to greater and greater length as the class 
advances in proficiency. 

In adding a column, — for example, the one in 3 

the margin, — do not allow a child to say, **6 2 

and 8 are 14; 14 and 4 are 18; 18 and i are 5 

19," etc.; but teach him to speak the results of 7 

his mental additions only, thus: ''6, 14, 18, 9 

19, 28, 35, 40, 42, 45." I 

Drill on similar examples until the class can 4 

add long columns rapidly and accurately. Have 8 

the columns added both from bottom to top and 6 

from top to bottom. By changing the top and 45 

bottom figures only, an entirely new set of com- 
binations are formed, whichever way the column may be 
added. In this way, the teacher can present a very 
large number of blackboard exercises for the class with 
a comparatively small expenditure of time and labor on 
his own part. 

In the business world, the accountant is called upon 
to use addition more frequently, as a rule, than all the 
other fundamental processes combined. It is there- 
fore of the utmost importance that proficiency in this 

respect should be strictly demanded, and practice in 
E. M.— 11. 



122 ARITHMETIC. 

the addition of columns of figures should commence as 
soon as the child is able to combine numbers. If the 
drill on the primary combinations in addition has been 
thorough, the children should be able, in a very short 
time, to add long columns accurately as fast or faster 
than they can utter the consecutive additions aloud. 
The only way to learn to add accurately and rapidly is 
through much practice ; therefore, it is necessary to 
continue this class of exercises for some time, and even 
after taking up other steps. 

The only difficulty in teaching the subtraction of digits 
from the numbers between lO and lOO will be found in 
cases where the digital number exceeds the figure in 
the unit's place of the minuend. This difficulty can be 
readily overcome by continual practice on such subtrac- 
tions. Teach the children in such cases to add ten to the 
7inits of the minuend before subtracting the digit num- 
ber, and to subtract one from the tens of the minuend to 
obtain the tens of the answer. To familiarize this rule, 
give a long series of exercises, retaining first the same 
units' figure, and then the same tens' figure, of the min- 
uend throughout, while varying the tens in the first case 
and the units in the second, and using as a subtrahend 
the digital numbers in succession. The following exam- 
ples will serve as a guide for this work : 



21 


31 


41 


51 


6i 


71 


8i 


91 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


22 


32 


42 


52 


62 


72 


82 


92 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 


3 



Etc., etc., etc. 



SECOND YEAR COURSE. 1 23 



21 

2 


22 

3 


23 
4 


24 

5 




25 

6 


26 

7 


27 
8 


28 
9 


31 

2 


32 
3 


33 
4 


34 

5 

Etc., 


etc., 


35 
6 

, etc. 


36 

7 


37 
8 


38 
9 



Tables similar to the following, embracing 30 to 38, 
40 to 48, etc., up to 90 to 98, should be written on the 
board and used as a drill exercise in subtracting. These 
tables may be learned in regular order, but promiscuous 
exercises on them should also be given. 



20 


20 


20 


20 


20 


20 


20 


20 


20 


I 


2 


3 


_4 


_5 


6 


7 


8 


9 




21 

2 


21 
3 


21 

_1 


21 

_5 


21 

6 


21 

7 


21 

8 


21 
9 






22 
3 


22 
4 


22 
5 


22 
6 


22 
7 


22 
8 


22 
9 








23 

_4 


23 
5 


^1 


23 

7 


23 
8 


23 

9 










24 
5 


24 
6 


24 
7 


24 
8 


24 
9 



25 
6 


25 

7 


25 
8 


25 
9 




26 


26 


26 




7 


8 


_9 






27 
8 


27 
9 

28 
9 



124 ARITHMETIC. 

Drill also on adding and subtracting by tens to and 
from each number within the limits of lo and lOO. 

Up to this point, the children have been taught to 
consider numbers as pai'ts to be combined and separated. 
They are now to study the same numbers in their rela- 
tions as factors. In introducing these new processes of 
multiplication and division, the principle of developing 
ideas before words should control, ^nd the knowledge 
already gained should be used as a stepping-stone to the 
acquisition of the new ideas. For example, the child 
already knows that 2 + 2 + 2 = 6; also, that 3 + 3 = 6. 
With this knowledge as a basis, it is very easy to show 
him that three times 2 are 6, and that two times 3 are 
6. Thus, the child's knowledge of addition is used in 
teaching him multiplication. This seems much more 
rational than at once plunging into the multiplication 
table, and, by dint of incessant repetition, memorizing 
the combinations of a host of factors and products. By 
the first method, the child learns Jiow the product is 
formed, and ivJiy 3X2 or 2X3 = 6. By the second 
method, he simply remembers — if he can remember — 
the formula. 

It is not to be disputed that the multiplication table 
should be memorized, so that any two digital factors 
being given, the product shall be given instantly and 
without adding; but this mastery of the table should be 
a gradual process, and each successive product should 
be properly analyzed and introduced. If this plan of 
teaching be adopted, it will be found th^ the children 
understand what they are studying, that they learn more 
rapidly, and that they remember the tables better after 
they are learned. 

We submit the following method of treating Lesson 



SECOND YEAR COURSE. 1 25 

XXXIX, and suggest that each of the succeeding les- 
sons in muhipHcation be taught in a similar manner: 

Illustrate the work by practical demonstrations before 
the eyes of the class, using the numeral frame and 
various objects, as in teaching addition and subtraction. 
At first, use the denominations balls, apples, shells, 
blocks, etc., illustrating with the objects themselves; 
then use denominations without illustrating ; and, finally, 
use the abstract numbers simply, thus : 

How many are i ball and i ball? (^Illustrating with balls?) 

How many are i horse and i horse ? 

How many are i and i ? 

How many are two I's? One 2? 

How many are two times i ? One time 2 ? 

Use a number of different objects in illustrating this 
step ; and when the answers are instantaneous, write the 
final ones on the board, as they appear in the table of 
Lesson XXXIX, thus : 

1 time 2 is 2 ; 

2 times I are 2. 

Then proceed by the same steps to form the next 
product : 

How many are i block, i block, and i block ? {Ilhcstrafing.) 

How many are i doll, i doll, and i doll ? 

How many are i and i and i ? 

How many are three I's? One 3? 

How many are three times i ? One time 3 ? 

Place the final answers in the column on the board, as 

before : 

I time 3 is 3 ; 

3 times I are 3. 



1 26 ARITHMETIC. 

In a similar way, lead the children to form the entire 
table, writing each successive product on the board as it 
is formed. 

If a pupil hesitate in giving a product, he should be 
indulged at first, and allowed to work out the answer in 
his own mind by addition ; in other words, to exercise 
his reasoning powers. But, as soon as possible, put a 
stop to the necessity of adding in order to find a 
product. This can be done only by constant drill on 
the table until it is thoroughly memorized. Addition is 
useful in leading children to see how the products are 
formed, but it should be borne in mind that the final 
aim in teaching multiplication is to train the child's 
memory so that, any two digital factors being given, the 
product will instantly come to his mind without adding. 

More exercises are required for purposes of drill than 
can possibly be crowded into a primary text-book, 
which should be used only as a guide. The teacher 
should therefore supplement largely the exercises in the 
book under each table. 

Division is simply the reverse of multiplication, and 
as such may be easily taught by utilizing the child's ac- 
quired information as to the latter process. For exam- 
ple, you taught the child that 3X2 or 2X3 = 6 by 
presenting to his eye three 2's and two 3's, thus: 

2 -f- 2 + 2 = 6 ; 
3 + 3=6. 

It is very easy, then, to lead him to see by inspec- 
tion that there are three 2's in 6, and two 3's in 6, and 
he will readily answer the questions: 

How many times 2 in 6? 
2 in 6 how many times ? 



SECOND YEAR COURSE. 12/ 

How many times 3 in 6 ? 
3 in 6 how many times ? 

We would suggest, therefore, that in teaching the 
successive lessons in division, the tables of the corre- 
sponding lessons in multiplication be used as a basis. 
For example, in forming the table of Lesson LIII, 
use the table of Lesson XL as a basis. 

As in teaching multiplication, the processes should be 
illustrated by means of the numeral frame and objects 
of various sorts, at the first step, then concrete numbers 
should be used, and finally abstract numbers. The fol- 
lowing is the method suggested for treating Lesson 
LIII: 

How many are 2 times i ball? (Lesson XL.) 

How many times i ball in 2 balls ? 

How many times 2 balls in 2 balls ? 

How many are 2 times i house ? 

How many times i house in 2 houses ? 

How many times 2 houses in 2 houses ? 

How many are 2 times i ? 

How many times i in 2 ? 

How many times 2 in 2 ? 

It is not thought necessary to form the table of I's 
in division ; therefore, write only the answer to the last 
question on the board, thus : 

2 in 2, I time. 

Proceed in the same manner to find the next quotient : 

How many are two times 2 gloves ? 
How many times 2 gloves in 4 gloves ? 
How many are 2 times 2 farms ? 
How many times 2 farms in 4 farms ? 
How many are 2 times 2 ? 
How many times 2 in 4 ? 



128 ARITHMETIC. 

Write the answer under the preceding one, thus : 

1 vs\ ^f, 1 times. 

In the succeeding steps, use both factors as divisors 
in forming the division table, thus : 

How many are 3 times 2 pencils ? 
How many are 2 times 3 pencils ? 
How many times 2 pencils in 6 pencils ? 
How many times 3 pencils in 6 pencils ? 
How many are 3 times 2 wagons? 
How many are 2 times 3 wagons ? 
How many times 2 wagons in 6 wagons ? 
How many times 3 wagons in 6 wagons ? 
How many are 3 times 2 ? 
How many are 2 times 3 ? 
How many times 2 in 6 ? 
How many times 3 in 6 ? 

Write the last two answers on the board, thus : 

2 in 6, 3 times ; 

3 in 6, 2 times. 

Proceed in like manner to complete the table of 2's 
and the succeeding tables of division. It will not be 
necessary to memorize the division tables if work on the 
multiplication tables has been thorough. For, if the 
latter have been mastered, when a product and one of 
its factors are given, the children should be able to give 
the other factor instantly after they have learned the 
simple process of division. 

As in multiplication, the exercises under each lesson 
in the book should be supplemented by others until 
every step of the table is thoroughly learned and im- 
pressed on the memory. 



SECOND YEAR COURSE. 1 29 

For convenience in written exercises, the signs of 
multiplication and division may be taught as soon as 
those subjects are taken up. 

The Review Lessons from LXII to LXXVIII in- 
clusive should receive careful attention, and no child 
should be allowed to go into an advanced class whose 
work on review is unsatisfactory. It follows that he 
does not fully understand his work thus far, or that he is 
insufficiently drilled, and in either case it is folly to give 
him more difficult work to do, and work that presumes 
thoroughness in what has gone before. 

Lesson LXII, except the table, and Lessons LXIX 
and LXXI embrace what is commonly known as 
''lightning calculations." They should be extended at 
the discretion of the teacher, and the four processes of 
addition, subtraction, multiplication and division should 
be included. It is well to vary the order of the pro- 
cesses in different examples. In schools where the 
teacher is pushed for time, in place of reciting these 
exercises orally, they may be used as slate or board 
exercises. Commence the work by pausing after each 
process a few seconds. Make these pauses shorter and 
shorter as the class becomes skilled, and have only the 
final results uttered or written. If a class is sent to 
the board to work, number the pupils in consecutive 
order as they stand at the board, and give the odd num- 
bers one example and the even numbers another, in 
order to prevent copying or prompting. 

In teaching the tables in Lessons LXXIX to 
LXXXVIII inclusive, the teacher should supply him- 
self, so far as possible, with the actual measures of 
value, weight, etc., and demonstrate before the class, for 
example, that ''2 pints make i quart" by filling the 



I30 ARITHMETIC. 

pint cup twice, and pouring its contents into the quart 
cup. A very good plan in teaching many of these tables 
is simply to teach the names of the different measures, 
and have the children find out for themselves by actual 
experiment in the class-room how many of one measure 
it takes to make the next higher. The tables taught in 
this way will be learned with interest and will be remem- 
bered. Whereas, if simply made a matter of rote, they 
are apt to convey but little information ; consequently, 
they are devoid of interest and are speedily forgotten. 



XL 

ARITHME TIC— CONCL UDED. 
Third Year. 

BEFORE beginning the advance work of the third 
year, give the class a thorough review of the 
Primary Arithmetic. It will be sufficient, ordinarily, to 
have the children perform the work of the regular 
review lessons of that book, which are to be found on 
pages 23 to 26, 38 to 40, 52 to 55, 66 to 83, inclusive, 
and on page 94. As before stated, pupils who find any 
difficulty in solving the problems contained in these 
review lessons are not prepared to advance, and should 
be kept in the Primary Arithmetic class until they are 
thoroughly proficient. Bear in mind that, in the study 
of Arithmetic especially, one step must be mastered 
before another is attempted. Progress is necessarily 
slow, and the golden rule is, "Make haste slowly.'^ 

Mental and Written Arithmetic should be taught to- 
gether to save labor and time. Therefore, after com- 
pleting the review of the Primary, as suggested, have 
the class begin work in both the New Intellectual and 
the New Practical Arithmetics. Let the mental and 
written instruction alternate, and, as far as possible, 
have the work in the Intellectual Arithmetic precede 
work on the corresponding subject in the Practical 
Arithmetic. It is proposed to complete the work in 
both books as far as the subject of fractions during this 
Third Year. 

(131) 



I 3 2 ARITHME TIC. 

A clear understanding of the terms used in arithmetic 
is absolutely necessary, and all definitions should be 
carefully memorized. Principles and rules should also 
be required as they are given in the book, because these 
can not be given clearly in fewer words. The thought, 
of course, must be explained with great care to avoid 
*' parrot work," caution against which can not be re- 
peated too often. But, after the thought is grasped, 
demand exactness of expression, which is one of the 
most important aims in the study of arithmetic. 

Before beginning the third year's work, the children 
are supposed to understand the four fundamental pro- 
cesses, and to be able to solve simple problems within 
the limits of lOO. They are now supposed, also, to 
have arrived at an age when they may properly be re- 
quired to ajialyze the different processes ; that is, to 
state clearly and concisely each step of a solution. 

In teaching analysis, care must be taken not to allow 
repetitions, or indeed any unnecessary verbiage. Wordy 
analyses not only involve a waste of time, but they 
obscure the reasoning rather than make it clear. The 
old method of requiring a child to separate his analysis 
into four formal steps, two of which were usually need- 
less repetitions, has been abandoned by all advanced 
teachers, who have adopted in its place the simplest and 
most concise form of statement consistent with clear 
reasoning. The Model Solutions in the Intellectual and 
Practical Arithmetics give all the steps necessary to a 
thorough understanding of a problem, and give them as 
concisely, perhaps, as can well be done. The children 
should be required to follow these models in their exer- 
cises in analysis. 

Exercises in analysis should not be confined to work 



THIRD YEAR COURSE. 1 33 

in mental arithmetic. The written work should be 
analyzed in the same way. The latter differs from the 
former only in that it requires mechanical work (the 
operation) in addition to the mental work. Both forms 
of work are useful, and each has a particular purpose. 

The tables of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and 
division in the Intellectual and Practical Arithmetics, 
carry the work a few steps beyond the corresponding 
tables in the Primary book. All of these tables should 
be learned and recited, but the multiplication table 
should be memorized so that each product, up to 12 X 
12 = 144, can be given by every member of the class 
the instant that the factors are presented. 

Prepare for the class as large a number and variety 
of original exercises, both mental and written, as you 
possibly can. Such original exercises are far better in 
certain respects than those given in any book ; for, de- 
spite every caution, answers to the latter are liable to 
be copied from keys, or marked in the old books, and 
thus the object of the exercises is defeated. 

It is unwise to assign work in arithmetic to be per- 
formed by the children out of school hours, for almost 
invariably those children who most need the exercise 
will procure assistance in place of endeavoring to do the 
work themselves, and again the object of the exercises 
is defeated. The consequence is that the class develops 
very unevenly ; some of the pupils making rapid mental 
progress, and others dragging behind hopelessly. Much 
supposed natural incapacity may be suddenly removed 
by the discovery that those "naturally incapable" are 
neglecting their work. The teacher should therefore 
carefully watch them, and see that they actually perform 
the work assigned them. 



1 3 4 ARITHME TIC. 



Fourth Year. 



In the Fourth Year, the class should continue alter- 
nate recitations in mental and written arithmetic, and it 
is suggested that the work be extended to the subject 
of ratio in the Intellectual, and to percentage in the 
Practical, Arithmetic. That is, the arithmetical work 
of the entire year is devoted to the study of fractions, 
both common and decimal. This includes the work 
ordinarily performed in graded schools during the fifth 
year. 

In teaching fractions, illustrate by actual objects, as in 
the first steps in teaching whole numbers. Show the 
class that there are two halves in one whole apple by 
dividing an apple into two equal parts. Demonstrate 
the importance of the word equal by dividing an apple, 
or other object, into two parts which are not equal. 
Neither part, in this case, will be a half. 

Illustrate \, \, \, \y etc., in the same way. By this 
method, the class at once gain a clear, accurate idea of 
fractional parts. They see that f, -|, |, etc., make one 
whole, or unit, without waste of words. 

The difference between a proper and an improper frac- 
tion should be practically illustrated, and the reason for 
so naming the latter will be immediately apparent. 
Continue to illustrate each step by objects as you 
advance. 

Before giving Lesson XXVII of the Intellectual Arith- 
metic to the class, illustrate with objects the fact that 
the same fractional part of a unit can be expressed in a 
variety of terms; that is, by a variety of numerators 
and denominators (see definition of * 'terms," page 47, 
Intellectual Arithmetic). Thus, \ of an apple can be 



FOURTH YEAR COURSE. I 35 

divided into two equal parts, and the \ becomes \ ; or, 
it can be divided into three equal parts, and the \ be- 
comes -| ; divided into four equal parts, \ becomes ^, 
etc. The class will readily see that \, f, -|, f, etc., all 
express the same quantity; i. e., ^ of one apple. Con- 
tinue the illustration by the division of \, \, \, etc., into 
two, three, four, etc., equal parts. When the children 
understand this, they can easily understand, also, what 
is meant by "reducing a fraction to its lowest terms." 

The use of objects should be abandoned whenever the 
teacher finds that it is no longer necessary to a clear 
understanding of the subject, but it may be found advis- 
able to resume this method occasionally when any un- 
usual difficulty presents itself 

It may occur to some teachers that there is too great 
disparity in the amount of work assigned for the third 
and fourth years. It is true that, as far as the number 
of pages covered in the Practical Arithmetic is con- 
cerned, there is a disparity; but it must be borne in 
mind that the work assigned for the third year is very 
largely a review and an extension of principles taught in 
the two preceding years. Whereas, the subject of frac- 
tions opens an entirely new and quite a difficult field ; 
and the work assigned for the fourth year will be found 
ample, even under the most favorable circumstances, to 
occupy the time. 



Fifth Year. 



Percentage and its applications are made the special 
objects of study this year. The subject of ratio is in- 
troduced in the Intellectual before percentage; but, if 
thought best, it may be omitted until that subject is taken 



136 ARITHME TIC. 

Up in the Practical Arithmetic, at the beginning of the 
Sixth Year. 

It is true that the study of percentage, and its appH- 
cations, possesses pecuhar value for those pupils who 
intend to follow certain mercantile pursuits ; but a fair 
knowledge of the subject is valuable to men of almost 
every occupation, and should therefore receive careful 
attention. 

The subject is so fully treated in the Practical Arith- 
metic that additional explanation here seems uncalled 
for. Lessons in the Intellectual Arithmetic, as before 
suggested, should precede the corresponding lessons in 
the Practical Arithmetic. 

Unless the subject of ratio be postponed, the In- 
tellectual Arithmetic should be finished this year. 



Sixth Year. 



The work of this year, from ratio to the close of the 
Practical Arithmetic, with the exception of arithmetical 
and geometrical progression, is essentially practical in 
nature, and a knowledge of the subjects treated is 
useful, if not necessary, to all. 

The number of examples given in the book is neces- 
sarily limited, owing to the number of subjects treated, 
and to the condensed form demanded in a school text- 
book. The examples in the book should be largely 
supplemented by the teacher, and the latter should en- 
deavor to make his original exercises as practical as 
possible. 

It has been frequently suggested that teachers should 
supply exercises for their classes in addition to those 



SIXTH YEAR COURSE. 13/ 

given in the several text-books. Many teachers may 
find it impossible to devote the time necessary for the 
proper preparation of such exercises ; and, unless the 
exercises are most carefully prepared and graded, they 
will usually be found of little service. To such teachers 
the use of "Ray's New Test Examples in Arithmetic" 
is recommended, which will furnish them the necessary 
number and variety of exercises to supplement the work 
of each year. The exercises of this book are practical 
in their nature, all mere puzzles having been excluded. 
We can not give a correct idea of the book in any 
better way than by quoting from the preface of its 
author, Mr. B. O. M. DeBeck, formerly a teacher in the 
public schools of Cincinnati. He says: 

* ' No example has been introduced which the average 
pupil can not solve without assistance, and no solid 
progress can be expected unless this is required. 

* * The examples in each article have been carefully 
graded, the first few being suited to very young pupils, 
while the last half would furnish work for advanced 
pupils whose time is limited. 

''Attention is called to examples occuring in pairs, 
where a slight variation in statement changes the nature 
of the problem. 

*'In each article, the number of examples presented 
is made to depend upon the difficulty and importance 
of the particular subject presented." 

The book covers the entire ground of Ray's New 
Practical Arithmetic, and is bound in two forms, — with 
answers and without answers. The latter, if so desired, 
may be placed in the hands of the pupils ; while a copy 
with answers, in possession of the teacher, will save him 
much time and trouble. 

E. M.-12. 



1 3 8 ARITHMETIC. 

BOOK-KEEPING. 

If the older pupils have the time and the inclination 
to extend their mathematical course beyond the ordinary 
limits of the common school, they can do so in no way 
that will afford a better return for the time and labor 
expended than by taking a short course in book- 
keeping. 

In many cities and towns, book-keeping is made a 
requirement in the regular course of the public schools ; 
but the necessity of the study is fully as great in the 
country schools, owing to the fact that there is a very 
general lack of information on the subject in country 
neighborhoods. 

A knowledge of book-keeping can be turned to prac- 
tical account by every man and woman, no matter what 
his or her vocation may be. Few professional men, 
farmers, artisans, or tradesmen are able to keep a set of 
books for themselves, and few are willing or able to pay 
a clerk for the purpose of having their accounts accu- 
rately kept, even if such a clerk were easily obtained. 
Therefore, these classes of men are notoriously poor 
"business men." They rarely know exactly what their 
financial condition is. Debts accumulate unexpectedly; 
collections are overlooked ; and notes fall due at the 
most inconvenient times, without any preparation having 
been made to meet them. Confusion in financial mat- 
ters usually results, sooner or later, in disaster, and all 
for the lack of a little system and order, which could 
readily be secured by a knowledge of rudimentary book- 
keeping, and a very limited expenditure of time and 
trouble. 

Even those whose affairs can be managed well enough, 



B OK-KEEPING. 1 3 9 

in their opinion, without the trouble or expense of 
book-keeping, must appreciate the value of fully under- 
standing the accounts of the store-keeper and others 
against themselves. Thus, a knowledge of book-keeping 
is useful to nearly every one, whether the books kept 
are his own or another's. 

Not only the accounts of the profession, the farm, and 
the trade should be accurately kept, but also the 
accounts of the living expenses of the household, for in 
no way are economy and thrift more certainly made 
possible and encouraged. With the figures before you, 
it is comparatively easy to see where there has been un- 
necessary outlay, and where you can most readily cut 
down expenses. The wife, daughter, or son can and 
should keep these household accounts, rather than the 
head of the family, whose time, generally, is too fully 
occupied with other affairs to give these proper atten- 
tion. 

Women, too, in the present day, are gradually mak- 
ing their way into the book-keeping situations of busi- 
ness houses in our cities and towns. In the cities they 
are regularly educated for these positions, and a respect- 
able girl who is so educated often obtains a situation 
which provides a comfortable living for herself, and per- 
haps for her family as well, in place of being forced by 
a lack of such knowledge to accept a miserable pittance 
of two or three dollars a week as an overworked shop- 
girl or seamstress. It therefore behooves both boys and 
girls to add a knowledge of book-keeping to their store 
of useful acquirements whenever it is made possible to 
do so. 

A knowledge of book-keeping does not involve, as 
some seem to think, the necessity of a two or three 



140 ARITHMETIC. 

year's course at a business college. It is true that if a 
man intends to become a professional book-keeper, — an 
expert, — such a course is advisable ; but one may learn 
all that is necessary to be able to keep an ordinary set 
set of accounts in a perfectly accurate and clear manner 
by a few months' careful study of a manual especially 
adapted to this purpose. The Eclectic Complete Book- 
keeping is just such a manual. The few necessary 
terms, such as debit, credit, etc., the classification of 
accounts, and the titles of accounts are carefully and 
lucidly explained. The various books necessary are de- 
scribed, and sample pages of each are shown. Then, 
four illustrative sets of transactions are given, two of 
which are accompanied by the corresponding pages of 
the Day-book, Journal, Ledger, Cash-book, etc., with 
the various transactions of the two sets properly 
** written up." With these models before him for refer- 
ence, the student is required to write up properly the 
transactions of the two remaining sets, and also certain 
particular problems, which are accompanied by particular 
instructions. Various suggestions are made where there 
is a choice between different methods of entry, and the 
entire subject is made so clear and simple that its 
thorough understanding presents but little difficulty to 
an ordinary mind. 

Samples are given of the various forms of commercial 
paper, just as they actually appear, in script, including 
notes, drafts, acceptances, checks, etc. 

The business of joint stock companies is briefly and 
clearly explained, and sample pages of the Installment 
Scrip Book, Certificate and Transfer Book, and the 
Capital Stock Ledger are presented. 

Special accounts and books, such as a Pay Roll, Phy- 



BOOK-KEEPING. I4I 

sician's Diary, Farm Accounts, Farm Record, Farm 
Register, and Family Expense Account receive brief 
treatment, but ample to enable a pupil to understand 
each thoroughly, and to keep the accounts if it should 
become necessary to do so. 

The entire book contains less than 150 pages of sub- 
ject-matter, and can be thoroughly mastered, with care- 
ful teaching, in a few months' time. The manual is 
accompanied by a key, which will enable any teacher to 
master the subject and to teach it without the least 
difficulty. There is also a complete set of book-keeping 
blanks, consisting of a Day-book, Journal, Ledger, Cash- 
book, and Bill-book. These blanks, which are in book 
form, have been expressly prepared to accompany the 
manual. They are of sufficient size, and are properly 
ruled for the use of students in writing up the work re- 
quired by the manual. 



GEOGRAPHY 



XII. 

THE ECLECTIC ELEMENTAR V GEOGRAPHY. 

COMPLAINT is justly made that children ordinarily 
receive but little benefit from the study of geog- 
raphy in our common schools. Pupils are confused by 
unintelligible statements about "imaginary lines," the 
earth's "turning over," "zones," and many similar 
terms and expressions, the simple statements of which 
convey no information whatever to a child's mind. The 
pupils are hurried confusedly through mathematical, 
physical, and political geography, and are compelled to 
memorize the words of many definitions concerning 
which they may not have a single clear idea. They are 
then crammed with the names and localities of places — 
many of them so unimportant that they are never 
heard of outside of the school-room — and with endless 
statistics of areas, populations, and crop productions im- 
possible to remember. Why wonder that a child so 
taught has a vague idea that **the equator is a lion 
running around the earth," a definite conviction that 
Maine is yellow and New Hampshire red, and a grave 
uncertainty as to whether the population of the United 
States is 50,000,000 or 5,000,000! 

The reason such poor results are obtained from teach- 
ing geography is because many teachers blindly follow 
whatever text-book may be in use, sticking persistently 
to the book, and never offering the slightest assistance 

E. M.-13. (1451 



146 ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. 

to their classes in the way of illustration or explanation. 
Thus, even if the book happens to be a good one, it is 
not used, as it should be, to the best possible advantage. 

The teacher should make the subject a study, first, to 
decide what and how much to teach ; and second, how 
to teach it with the greatest probability of successful 
results. By successful results, we mean so that children 
will retain a store of information which will be useful to 
them in after life. No matter what text-book is used, 
it should be used only as a guide, and its subject-matter 
should be supplemented or cut down as, in the teacher's 
judgment, necessity requires. Text-books are made to 
answer the general demand, but each teacher must be 
a law unto himself as to what to teach and how to 
teach it. 

We repeat the warning given as to other subjects, — 
not to talk over the children's heads. By this, how- 
ever, it is not meant that you should not attempt to 
develop ideas, although these ideas involve facts beyond 
the clear appreciation of any human mind. For exam- 
ple, the idea of the revolution of the earth on its axis 
involves the fact that we are whirling about a center at 
the rate — at the equator — of more than a thousand miles 
an hour. And while we are entirely unable to perceive 
the latter fact through our senses, yet this should not 
prevent our endeavor to give the children a clear idea 
of the revolution of the earth once in twenty-four hours. 
Astronomical distances are still more inconceivable, but 
that fact should not prevent instruction as to the yearly 
journey of the earth around the sun, and the consequent 
change of seasons. It is not to be expected that chil- 
dren will fully comprehend all that is involved in the 
science of geography, but they can be taught in simple 



PRIMARY TEACHING. 1 47 

language, and by means of practical illustration, to un- 
derstand the simple facts at the basis of the science. 

The subject of geography opens up a wide and 
interesting field for composition work, and should be 
thoroughly utilized in this direction. The two branches 
mutually assist in adding to the interest of the class in 
both studies, and information put into writing is apt to 
be remembered, while that which is the result of the 
mere memorizing of a text-book is usually soon for- 
gotten. 

The teacher can add very much to each day's recita- 
tion in geography by reading or narrating to the class 
little incidents or interesting facts gleaned from history 
or authentic books of travels, and connected with cities 
or locahties. This plan, in addition to aiding the 
memory, relieves the subject of monotony. 

At first the teaching of geography should be oral. 
Many facts properly included under this head should 
receive preliminary treatment in object lessons, such as 
facts concerning the different kinds of soils and minerals, 
the vegetable and animal worlds, etc., etc. These facts, 
if properly classified and taught, prepare the way for 
the study of geography proper, which should not be 
begun until the child is ten or twelve years of age. It 
is useless and injurious to crowd a multiplicity of sub- 
jects on the young child ; and, up to the age named, 
reading, writing, and arithmetic, with attendant language 
and object lessons, will be ample to occupy the time 
profitably. 

Teach primary geography objectively as far as possible. 
A large school globe is desirable, but if it is not to be 
had, a ball or orange may be made to answer fairly 
well. Molding-sand can be used to advantage for 



148 ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. 

certain purposes. Walks in the country, with talks 
about the hills and the valleys, the flow of the streams, 
the vegetation and the soil, the state of the weather and 
the season of the year, the fog and the rain, the heat 
and the cold, — all should be used to illustrate the sub- 
ject and to interest the children. These are things that 
can not be put in a text-book, but on their proper use 
depends to a large extent the success of every teacher. 
The training of the imagination is one of the most 
useful purposes of geography, and this faculty must be 
called into active play in this study from the very be- 
ginning. The knowledge of things seen must be 
utilized to develop correct ideas of the unseen. Thus, 
a globe or a ball is used to develop the idea of the 
great round world ; a little creek, or even a gutter, may 
be used to illustrate a great river ; a level field, to give 
an idea of many miles of a plain ; a small hill or ridge, 
to illustrate the mountain peak or range, etc., etc. For 
example, in teaching the opening lesson in the Eclectic 
Elementary Geography, illustrate the fact that the earth 
is a great ball moving, unsupported, through space, by 
means of soap bubbles floating in the air. Blow the 
bubbles, and let the class watch them as they move. 
Now, tell the children that the earth does not move first 
this way and then that, as the bubbles are apt to do, 
but that it journeys steadily on in the same direction, 
year after .year, its path making a circle about the sun.'^ 



■^ Do not confuse small children by mincing scientific terms. It 
is not necessary at this stage that a child should know the earth is 
a spheroid, and not a sphere, or that the earth's orbit is an ellipse, 
and not a circle, since the ellipse is so nearly a circle that it 
would take a miscroscope to detect the difference on a plan in 
which the radius of the circle is 10 feet. 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 1 49 

To illustrate this last statement, pass a wire or stick 
through a ball, orange, or apple, and use a candle or 
lamp to represent the sun. Walk about the lamp with- 
out interposing your body between the lamp and the 
ball or between the ball and the class. Be sure to walk 
in the right direction, keeping the lamp on your left 
side. Explain that the circle of the earth about the 
sun, thus illustrated, is so large that it takes a year for 
the earth to complete it. Have each child in the class 
carry the ball about the lamp in the same way. 

When the class seems to have a clear idea of the mo- 
tion of the earth about the sun, tell them that while the 
earth is making this yearly journey it is also spinning 
around like a top. Illustrate the movement by whirling 
the wire in the fingers while you are walking about the 
light, thus showing both movements in operation at 
once. Tell the class that the earth is such a big ball 
that it takes a whole day to turn completely around 
once, although it is spinning fast. 

In explaining what the axis is, be careful the children 
do not get the absurd idea that there is a rod similar to 
the wire extending through the earth. Illustrate by 
spinning a coin on the desk ; this shows the line of the 
axis very clearly ; but to give the idea of a sphere spin- 
ning about an axis in the same way, follow the coin 
illustration with the ball spun on the desk without the 
wire inserted. 

In illustrating day and night, it is well to darken the 
room entirely, except from the light of the lamp or 
candle used to represent the sun, explaining that the 
sun is practically the only source from which the earth 
receives light. Then, by holding the ball close to the 
light, and turning the former slowly on the wire, the 



150 ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. 

class readily sees that one half of the globe is dark and 
the other half light ; also, that the movement of any 
given spot on the globe — except within the polar circles, 
which, however, should not be mentioned at this stage — 
is constantly and steadily proceeding from darkness to 
light and from light to darkness. Bring out both of 
these points clearly: tJie equal division of darkness and 
light on the globe, and the constant movenierit from one 
to another, but develop only one idea at a time. The 
large illustration on page five of the book may be used 
also in showing the daylight and the darkness on the 
earth, and the school globe may be carried about the 
lamp in the manner suggested for the ball or the 
orange. Always give two or three different illustrations 
of the same point when it is possible. 

Be careful always to turn the ball or the globe in the 
same direction, from left to right, otherwise you will 
lead to confusion when you come to illustrate the direc- 
tions of the compass. To explain the latter, fix on your 
orange or ball a little image of a man with his arms 
extended, and his right hand pointing in the direction 
toward which the ball is to revolve. You can readily 
carve a rough little figure to answer the purpose, or you 
may use two pieces of match-sticks, etc., to represent a 
man with his arms extended ; in this case, you should 
blacken or otherwise mark the part representmg the 
face. Attach your figure to the ball in the proper posi- 
tion. Call the attention of the class to the fact that the 
axis of the earth ahvays points in the same direction. 
Illustrate as before, carrying the ball about the light, 
Avith the axis properly inclined. 

Call attention to the figure, and ask who can answer 
the following questions: "As I turn this ball slowly 



DIRECTIONS OF THE COMPASS. I5I 

around {suiting the actiofi to the word), where is the hght 
first seen, at the right or at the left hand of the figure? 
Where is it last seen?" Let the child who is being 
questioned come close to the ball, as you hold it in po- 
sition, and have him stand so that his right hand is in 
the direction of the right hand of the figure ; or, in 
other words, station him facing the light with the ball 
directly between his eyes and the light. This point 
needs care in illustration, but if the directions are fol- 
lowed, — if the pupil stands facing the light; if the ball 
is held between his eyes and the light, with the axis 
pointing to the north star ; and if the ball is then re- 
volved in the proper direction, from left to right, — the 
pupils should have no difficulty in answering the ques- 
tion. If there should be any difficulty, persist patiently 
until all the children see clearly that the light always 
appears on the right and disappears on the left of the 
figiire. When this fact is fully realized of one point in 
the orbit, carry the ball about the light as before, and 
show that the fact is true of eveiy point of the orbit. 
Do not use the word orbit, or any scientific terms, 
but lead the children to realize the fact by ocular 
demonstration, and with as few words as possible. Now 
explain that the great earth also turns always in one 
direction, so that the sun, like the lamp, invariably 
appears in one direction and disappears in the opposite 
direction. Next, teach that the direction in which the 
sun appears, or "rises," is called East, and the direction 
in which it disappears, or "sets," is called West. Ask: 
"Who can point to the direction in which the sun first 
appears in the morning ? In which direction is east ? 
Who can point to the direction in which the sun sets in 
the evening? In which direction is west? Stand with 



1 5 2 ELEMENTAR V GEOGRAPHY. 

your arms extended, with the right hand pointing to the 
east and the left hand pointing to the west. Now, chil- 
dren, when you stand in that position, with your right 
hand pointing to the east and your left hand pointing to 
the west, the direction directly in front of you is called 
Nofih, and the direction directly behind you is called 
South. Now, who can tell me which direction is in 
front of you ? In which direction is north ? Which 
direction is behind you? In which direction is south? 
Lower your hands. Point to the north ; to the east ; to 
the south ; to the west. Face the east ; the west ; the 
north; the south," etc., drilling until the four directions 
are perfectly familiar. 

In explaining the compass, by all means have the in- 
strument itself to show the class. Carry it with you on 
your walks, and teach the children to use it by locating 
the different cardinal points in various localities. 

In teaching the lines of the earth, a globe should be 
used. If the school does not possess one, use a ball or 
an orange, and draw the equator (a thread will serve for 
a mark), the parallels, and the meridians upon it. Be 
sure the children do not get the erroneous idea that 
these lines are actually marked on the earth's surface 
as they are on the globe or ball. 

By means of a globe or a ball properly marked, it is 
very easy to show a child that a degree of longitude at 
the equator is much longer than a degree of longitude 
at the arctic circle, although they are measured by the 
same meridians. But by merely memorizing the state- 
ment of this fact in a book, few if any children will 
have the remotest idea of what is meant or how such a 
thing could be. 

Explain with the globe the statements in the book re- 



USE OF THE SCALE. 153 

garding north and south latitude, and east and west lon- 
gitude. When the children understand the terms fully, 
drill them by having various points found on the globe 
when the latitude and longitude are given. 

The different divisions of land and water should be 
illustrated, as far as your particular locality admits of it, 
by pointing out to the children an actual cape, hill, 
bay, spring, etc. Few localities present many of the 
divisions, but, as before suggested, those which are 
accessible may often be used to develop correct ideas 
of those which are not. A tray full of molding-sand 
will enable you to form all the land divisions, and the 
banks of any little creek will afford you material for 
illustrating the definitions of both land and water divi- 
sions in miniature. This kind of work will interest the 
children, and they will remember the definitions so 
taught much more readily than by merely studying the 
statements in the book. Have the children themselves 
do as much work of this kind as may be necessary to 
fix the several definitions in their minds. 

In teaching what maps are, have the children make 
maps, first of the school-room, then of the school-yard, 
then of the neighborhood of the school, and of different 
familiar localities, etc. Begin by showing them what a 
scale of distances is, and why one is necessary to under- 
stand a map rightly. Thus, show them that while you 
can not draw a map of the school-room floor on the 
blackboard, making the map of the same size as the 
floor, yet, by measuring the latter, and representing 
each foot of the floor by a distance of one inch on the 
board, you can draw a map having the exact sJiape of 
the floor, with all the benches, desks, the stove, etc., in 
the right positions, so that a person who had never seen 



154 



ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. 



^ 



S 



•v, the room could form a very clear idea of its 

size, shape, and arrangement by simply look- 
ing at the map and consulting the scale on 
which it is drawn. 

To show why it is necessary to know the 
scale on which a map is made, draw two 
maps of the room floor on the board, using 
for the first a scale of one inch to the foot, 
and for the second a scale of half an inch to 
the foot. Draw the scales on the board, as 
in the margin, placing each scale under its 
"N — - ^ proper map. Explain that the two maps 
represent the same floor ; but, if it were not 
for the scales, we might think the maps rep- 
resented different floors, one- of which was 
much larger than the other. Again, draw a 
map of some imaginary room, and, without 
showing any scale, ask how wide a room or 
how long a room it represents. As it is impossible to 
answer these questions, the children will at once per- 
ceive the necessity of having a scale given in order to 
determine size or extent. 

Next, give the children as much practice as possible 
in measuring actual distances and reducing them to 
various scales. As they are presumed to be able to 
work problems in ratio and proportion by this time, the 
mathematical part of the w^ork should present no diffi- 
culty. 

When they show themselves proficient in reducing 
simple lines to a scale, have them employ the lines of 
length and breadth in figures representing certain simple 
areas, such as the school-room, school-yard, their own 
farms or places, etc., as before suggested. 



MAP TEACHING. 155 

The important aim of this work is to accustom chil- 
dren to view a map in its proper hght : namely, as a 
mere representation in miniature of a certain extent of 
country. Children should have sufficient practice in this 
kind of map-sketching to fix firmly in their minds the 
correct idea of what a map is before the maps in the 
book are made a subject of study. 

Before taking up the map of the world on pages 1 1 
and 12, you should use the school globe, if you have 
one, in teaching the hemispheres, the grand divisions, 
the principal islands, the oceans, and the seas. The first 
point to be made, and a most important one, is to have 
the children fully comprehend that the globe is simply 
a miniature representation of the world on which we 
live. Let it be your constant effort in teaching geog- 
raphy to carry the minds of the children from the rep- 
resentation to the thing represented, from the map of a 
country to the country itself, and from the descriptive 
text to what is described. Do not allow the globe to 
be studied simply as a wooden ball covered with paper, 
on which various colors, lines, and names are printed. 
Picture to the child's imagination, as vividly as you can, 
the great round earth, made up of land and water, with 
the continents and islands raised above, or, as it were, 
standing out of the oceans. When the children have 
this picture in their minds, tell them that the globe is 
made to jrpresent the earth, just as a very small toy 
house could be made to represent accurately the outside 
of a great palace. 

Point out on the globe, first, the continents, and then 
each of the grand divisions. Have the children point 
them out as they are named, and name them as they 
are pointed out, repeatedly, until ah are perfectly 



1 5 6 ELEMENTAR V GEOGRAPHY. 

familiar both as to name and locality. Next, the oceans 
should be pointed out on the globe, and their locations 
with reference to the continents should be learned as 
well as their names. Drill as on the continents and 
grand divisions. The principal islands, seas, etc., may 
be taught in the same manner. Teach that the map on 
pages II and 12 is simply another way of representing 
the surface of the round world, and that all other maps 
in the book are representations of only portions of the 
earth's surface drawn on a larger scale than this first 
map. Illustrate by contrasting North America, as rep- 
resented on pages 11 and 18. Follow this by contrast- 
ing the United States on pages 18 and 22, 23; then 
contrast your own state as shown on pages 22, 23, with 
the sectional map of the state given in the book. In 
this way the child is led to look at a sectional map in 
the right light as representing a portion of the earth's 
surface. He will not be so apt then to study it as a 
mere isolated conglomeration of colors, lines, and names. 
It is suggested that each map be traced back in this 
manner through the decreasing scales until the portion 
under study is located on the map of the world or the 
globe, and that the children be taught to bear this 
location in mind while studying the larger map. 

Relief globes and maps, and moldings in sand, are 
used by some instructors in teaching the structure of 
continents, but there is, we think, a very grave objec- 
tion to their use, as they must necessarily give most 
erroneous ideas of elevations of land as compared with 
continental distances. We think it is a fact conceded 
by all teachers that it is better to develop no ideas at 
all than to develop wrong ones. First impressions are 
notably strong. Why, then, should children be taught 



RELIEF MAPS. 157 

the monstrous absurdities portrayed on relief globes and 
maps, and by moldings of continents, only to be com- 
pelled to fight against these first impressions for the 
remainder of their lives? Few teachers seem to realize 
how great the distortion generally is on a relief map or 
globe. For example, the highest mountain in the world, 
Mount Everest is about 29,000 feet high ; and when you 
reduce our world — about 7,900 miles in diameter — to 
the size of a school globe 2 feet in diameter, Mount 
Everest would be represented properly by a speck not 
■^ of an inch high. Again, let us consider the proper 
proportions of a section extending across the United 
States on the parallel of Mount Whitney, the highest 
mountain in the United States. This mountain is nearly 
15,000 feet high, and on its parallel the continent is 
about 2, 500 miles wide. If, then, we represent the 
mountain by an elevation one inch in height, our section 
must be made 1,056 inches, or 88 feet in width. Now 
consider the distortion of the ordinary molding in relief 
of the United States — say, with the mountains elevated 
at least an inch above sea-level, and with a breadth of 
continent not more than 40 inches. This would either 
represent Mount Whitney as 62^ miles high, or the 
continent as only 1 14 miles broad. Does not such 
teaching inevitably do more harm than good? It seems 
to us a much better plan not to bring these widely 
differing extensions into comparison until the child has 
arrived at an age when he can realize to a certain extent 
the vast difference between them. 

We do not mean to imply that relief should not be 
taught at all in primary classes. On the contrary, it 
can be very successfully taught. Show a child a hill ; 
tell him its height, and then contrast this with the 



158 ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. 

height of a mountain. He will readily follow you, and 
you have taken one step in teaching the relief of the 
globe. Again, show him a sloping field crossed by an 
abrupt ridge, and you can easily lead him to imagine 
the long gradual slope from the Mississippi River to the 
Rocky Mountains, and so on with other continental 
features, until the child can see in his mind the conti- 
nent as a whole, with its mountain ranges, river valleys, 
and coast plains, probably in a much truer light than 
that presented by distorted piles of sand, etc. We 
believe in teaching relief, but we do not believe in 
teaching wrong ideas, or in attempting to teach propor- 
tions impossible of conception. 

The use of molding-sand should be confined to the 
formation of the geographical forms usually defined. It 
is easy to teach the children to make an island, a prom- 
ontory, a cape, a plain, a plateau, a hill or mountain, 
a mountain chain, an isthmus, etc., but this method of 
illustration is not well adapted to teaching the forms of 
continents or their structure, neither is it sufficiently 
exact in ordinary use for teaching those facts usually 
acquired from maps. Molding-sand can not take the 
place of globes, maps, or books on geography. 

Great care must be taken that the children, in study- 
ing maps, do not get erroneous ideas of directions. 
North is almost invariably toward the top of a map ; but 
do not allow the children to gain an idea, because of 
this uniformity, that north means up and that south 
means dozvn. There is danger of this, especially when 
wall maps are constantly used. A case is on record 
where a school visitor asked the children to point to the 
north, and the entire school pointed directly over their 
heads. With correct and careful teaching, such a blun- 



ZONES. 159 

der would have been impossible. North means in the 
direction toward the north pole, and south means in 
the direction toward the south pole ; up means in the 
direction toward the zenith, or overhead, and down 
means in the direction toward the center of the earth, 
or underfoot. These latter definitions are not arbitrary, 
of course, for up also means from a lower to a higher 
place, and down means the reverse. Thus, down from 
the top of a hill may be in every direction of the com- 
pass ; and, from the base of the hill, you may be able 
to go up in every direction of the compass; but, from 
either top or bottom of the hill, there is but one north 
direction and but one south direction. We dwell upon 
this point because it is important that the distinction 
between the various terms should be impressed upon 
the minds of the children before they commence to 
study maps. 

In teaching the zones in the elementary class, it is 
undesirable to go into any explanation of Jiow the 
boundaries of the different zones are determined, as the 
subject is considered too difficult for the comprehension 
of young children. This explanation is treated fully 
under the corresponding head in the Complete Geogra- 
phy ; but in the Elementary, only so much is said about 
the zones as is necessary for a clear understanding of 
the succeeding topics of climate, plants, and animals ; 
the races of men, their manner of living, and their oc- 
cupations. 

In teaching climate, ask: **Who can tell from the 
definitions in the book in which zone we live?" If this 
question can not be answered at once, draw out the 
fact by a series of questions until the children realize 
that they must be living in the temperate zone. Then 



l60 ELEMENTARY GEOGRAPHY. 

point out the different zones on the globe, or, if the 
school does not possess one, on the map of the world, 
and show them as nearly as possible the spot where 
they live. 

In teaching plants, illustrate the subject as far as you 
can by specimens of the various plants, bits of woods 
of different kinds, etc., etc. Have the class bring you 
as many specimens as possible of the vegetable products 
of their zone, and incite them to secure a wide variety. 
If any important products of the temperate zone are 
not to be obtained in your neighborhood, make a list 
of them, and teach the children any interesting facts 
you may know about them. 

While the illustrations on page 13, and similar illus- 
trations throughout the book, are exceedingly useful, 
yet the lessons they teach should be supplemented 
where it is possible by showing the children the living 
animals. A zoological garden or a good menagerie is 
a most useful and intensely interesting means to this 
end ; but the children should be accompanied to such 
places by a person who is competent to tell them the 
names of the animals, where they live, their habits, 
their uses, etc. 

The manner of living and the occupations of men 
depend largely upon the zone in which they live ; thus, 
agriculture and manufacturing could not be carried on 
in the frigid zone. By judicious questioning, and by 
explanation where necessary, show how different coun- 
tries, or parts of countries, are peculiarly adapted by 
nature to certain pursuits. Also, demonstrate the im- 
portance of commerce, showing that by this means it is 
possible for almost any place to be supplied with the 
products and manufactures of the entire world. 



WHAT TO TEACH. l6l 

It will be observed that the maps of the Elementary 
Geography are exceedingly simple. Except on the 
sectional maps of the United States, only those rivers, 
mountains, cities, etc., are shown which, it is consid- 
ered, should be taught to every child, and in such a 
way that he will be able to locate them promptly as 
soon as they are mentioned. The sectional maps of the 
United States are fuller in detail, as children should be 
more fully instructed in regard to their own state than 
any other. The less important cities of the section not 
in the child's own state may be omitted in map work at 
the discretion of the teacher. 

The text of the Elementary Geography is absolutely 
free from statistics, from unimportant details, and from 
repetitions. Therefore, all that is given should be 
learned, and the teacher can not go wrong in demanding 
that the entire text shall be learned thoroughly. 

In reviewing, it will be well to bear in mind the rela- 
tive importance of the topics as presented in the book. 
Ask only general questions on the geography of the 
world as a whole. Let the questioning be a little fuller 
on the grand divisions. That on the different political 
divisions should be graduated in accordance with the 
importance of the several nations as related to our 
country and their own importance in the history of the 
world. The geography of the United States should 
receive careful attention, and your own state especially 
should have full treatment, the questions embracing all 
that is given in the book, both on the map and in the 
text. 



E. M.— 14. 



XIII. 

THE ECLECTIC COMPLETE GEOGRAPHY. 

THIS book has been so arranged, by the use of two 
sizes of type, that, if the time is hmited, a short 
course, complete in itself, can be adopted. The full 
course includes the entire text, embracing both the 
large and the small type. Much of the explanatory 
matter, and the less important particulars, are put in 
small type, and may be omitted without interfering with 
the arrangement or connection of the large type. The 
latter used alone constitutes the short course. The 
questions on the text are confined to the short course. 

The matter in small type, however, should in no case 
be disregarded entirely. Even where the short course 
is adopted, and this small type is not recited, the 
teacher should suggest that the pupils read it carefully. 
It contains much interesting and valuable information, 
and in many cases will assist materially in understanding 
the accompanying text in large type. 

The preliminary treatment of mathematical, physical, 
and political geography should be taught in a manner 
similar to that suggested for these subjects in the Ele- 
mentary Geography. In the Complete, the treatment 
is, of course, much fuller than in the Elementary, and 
is somewhat more difficult to understand. Every state- 
ment that admits of it should be fully illustrated. Have 
the children themselves perform all the illustrative ex- 
periments, such as showing the two movements of the 



EXPLANATIONS. ^ 1 63 

earth in combination ; how the directions east, west, 
north, and south are determined; the changes of season, 
how the zones are formed, etc., etc. In reviewing the 
preceding day's lesson, select some pupil to make the 
necessary explanations to the class, just as you made 
them on the previous day. Nothing will impress the 
facts on a child's memory so indelibly as this class of 
exercises. 

The statements in a text-book of this nature are nec- 
essarily very concise. Do not limit your instruction to 
these concise statements, however, where a development 
of the ideas they set forth seems desirable. For exam- 
ple, on page five, under mathematical geography, article 
2 {a), explain the statement, "This would not be the 
case if the surface were flat," by telling explicitly what 
would be the case, and ivliy the masts would disappear 
before the hull. If you can draw these explanations 
from the pupils themselves by judicious questioning, so 
much the better ; but, at all events, the full explana- 
tions should be made in one form or another. The 
pupils should not be allowed to stumble along in the 
dark as to the meaning of what they study, simply 
memorizing words. 

Show by experiment in the sunshine, or with a light 
of some kind, that a sphere is the only body whose 
shadow is always round, using a half sphere, a coin, 
and various objects besides a sphere. 

In teaching directions of the compass, pursue the 
same plan as in this elementary class. The two classes 
may be given the lesson together. 

In teaching the circles of the earth, show by experi- 
ment, using an orange or wooden ball properly cut, that 
the circle which divides a sphere into two equal parts 



1 64 COMPLETE GEOGRAPHY, 

must pass through the center of the sphere, that all such 
circles are of the same size, and that any circle which 
does not pass through the center of the earth is smaller 
than one that does. 

Explain with the globe why meridians are only semi- 
circumferences, while the parallels extend entirely 
around the globe. 

Explain why the meridian of Greenwich is taken as 
the prime meridian rather than that of London. The 
national observatory is at Greenwich. 

Exercises in finding points on the globe when the lat- 
itude and longitude are given, should be continued long 
enough to assure the teacher that the entire class under- 
stands the meaning and use of parallels and meridians. 

The motions of the earth should be illustrated as in 
the Elementary Geography by means of a ball transfixed 
by a wire, the sun being represented by a light of some 
kind. 

Show what is meant by the sun being **over" any 
meridian, illustrating with a light and a revolving globe. 

The simple diagram on page i66 may be readily 
drawn upon the board, and will be found of great assist- 
ance if used in connection with the revolving ball and 
lamp, in explaining how the limits of the zones are de- 
termined, the changes of seasons, the longest and 
the shortest days of the year, etc. 

Explain, in the first place, what is meant by the in- 
clination of the earth's axis 23}^° from a perpendicular 
to the plane of the ecliptic, using the diagram on page 
7, second column, and the sketch on the opposite page 
of this book, which should be drawn on the board. 
Refer to article 15, page 6, in explaining what deter- 
mines the length of a degree. 



LENGTH OF DAYS. 



165 






23>i° 


f 


1/^ \ 


Plane of 


/ EcMptic 


I / 


/ 




3 / 
1^/ 



To illustrate and explain the longest and shortest 
day of the year, carry the globe around the light, hav- 
ing the axis properly inclined and 
kept constantly pointing in the 
same direction. Ask the children 
to note carefully at what point of 
the circuit the north end of the 
axis leans most directly away from 
the lamp, and at what point it 
leans directly toward the lamp. 
When they have recognized these 
two points, tell them that these two positions are rep- 
resented by figures No. i and No. 3 in the diagram on 
the board (see page 166). Darken the room, except from 
the light representing the sun, and show the class that at 
point No. I there is more darkness as compared with the 
light north of the equator than at any other point in the 
entire circuit, while at No. 3 there is more light as com- 
pared with the darkness north of the equator than at 
any other point in the circuit. This means, in other 
words, that when the earth is at point No. i it is the 
shortest day and the longest night of the year north 
of the equator, and when the earth is at point No. 3 
it is the longest day and the shortest night of the year 
north of the equator. Tell the class that the earth is in 
position No. I on the 21st of December, which is 
accordingly the shortest day of the year north of the 
equator; and that it is in position No. 3 on the 21st of 
June, which is therefore the longest day of the year 
north of the equator. South of the equator the condi- 
tions and facts are simply reversed. 

Now tell the class that the rays of the sun, when the 
earth is in these two positions, fix the limits of certain 



1 66 



COMPLETE GEOGRAPHY. 



No. 2. 

Spring 

March 22 nd. 




^ No. 4. 
Autuma 
Sept. 22nd. 

belts or zones, known as the north and south frigid 
zones, the torrid zone, and the north and south temper- 
ate zones. 

Hold the globe in position No. I, and indicate with a 
pencil the points a, b, and c. The first two points 
mark the northern and southern limits of the sunlight 
on this day; c marks the point on which the vniical 
rays of the sun fall on this day. With the pencil at 
each of these points in turn, have a pupil revolve the 
globe, and the pencil will describe the arctic circle at a, 
the antarctic circle at b, and the tropic of Capricorn at 
c. Then, in the same way, with the globe at position 
No. 3, the pencil describes the arctic circle at a, the 



ESTABLISHMENT OF ZONES. 1 6/ 

antarctic circle at b, and the tropic of cancer at c. 
Question the class, and draw out of the pupils the exact 
statements of how the limits of the torrid and frigid 
zones are determined, thus: **What determines the 
limits of the frigid zones?" Answer: ''The frigid zones 
are bounded by the parallels which mark the extreme 
limxits of the earth's surface touched by the sun's rays 
on the longest and shortest days of the year." ''What 
determines the limits of the torrid zone?" "The torrid 
zone is bounded by those parallels which mark the 
extreme limits of the earth's surface touched by the 
vertical rays of the sun on the longest and shortest days 
of the year." Explain that the surfaces between the 
frigid zones and the torrid zone are called the temperate 
zones. Thus we have the five distinct zones in order: 
the north frigid zone, the north temperate zone, the 
torrid zone, the south temperate zone, and the south 
frigid zone. 

Hold the globe in position No. i, and have the class 
note that on Dec. 2ist, which is called our winter sol- 
stice, the entire north frigid zone is in darkness ; that 
is, at no point in the north frigid zone does the sun 
appear or "rise" that day. Again, at this time in the 
south frigid zone, the sun is visible from every point ; 
that is, it does not "set" on that day. 

These facts, and the relative lengths of day and night 
in different quarters of the globe on this day, are illus- 
trated by the light and shaded portions of the diagram 
on the board ; but they should also be illustrated by 
actual experiment with the light and the globe. 

Explain that as the earth journeys on in its orbit from 
Dec. 2 1 St, that the point a gradually advances toward 
the north pole, and the point b recedes towards the 



1 68 COMPLETE GEOGRAPHY. 

south pole until at a certain point in the orbit these two 
points and the poles of the earth coincide ; that is, at 
this point, represented by figure No. 2 in the diagram, 
the sun's rays touch the north and south poles at the 
sarrie time. It is apparent from the figure that at this 
point exactly one half of each zone is light and the 
other half dark ; or, in other words, the days and nights 
are equal in all parts of the world. Illustrate with the 
globe and lamp as before, and tell the class that the 
earth reaches this point in its orbit which is known as 
the vernal equinox, on the 22d of March. 

The globe should be carried slowly from position No. 
I to position No. 2, and the class required to notice the 
gradual change of light and darkness in the two frigid 
zones. Demonstrate with the light and globe the 
changes that occur in each quarter from 2 to 3, 3 to 4, 
and 4 to I, asking such questions as will lead the class 
to find out the facts for themselves. 

Have the class notice that at every point in the orbit 
one half of the equator is in the light, and the other 
half in darkness ; that is, at the equator the day and 
the night are always equal, and each is one half of 24 
hours, or 12 hours, long. 

Have the class notice also that the sun first appears 
at the north pole on March 2 2d, and does not again 
disappear until September 22d ; that is, the day is there 
six months long. After disappearing on September 
22d, the sun does not appear again at the north pole 
until March 22d ; that is, the night is there six months 
long. This is also true at reverse periods for the south 
pole ; that is, the day and night are equal at the poles, 
and each is six months long. 

The explanations, illustrated by the globe and light, 



WAVES AND TIDES. 1 69 

the diagram on the board, and the diagrams in the 
book, ought to render the causes of aU the phenomena 
of day and night, and the seasons, apparent to any in- 
telHgent child who is old enough to study the Complete 
Geography. 

Teach the use of globes, maps, and scales as sug- 
gested for the Elementary Geography. 

In teaching physical geography, even those defini- 
tions that are repeated from the Elementary should be 
illustrated as far as possible, but especial attention 
should be paid to such definitions as may be new to the 
children. For example, illustrate the statements regard- 
ing the Land and Water Hemispheres, page nine, article 
13. Place the school globe in such a position that the 
diameter through the land and water centers, or 
''poles," will be perpendicular to the floor, turning first 
one pole on top and then the other. This will show at 
a glance the preponderance of water surface. 

If possible, secure a piece of unpolished coral to 
show of what material the coral islands are built. The 
more illustrations you have of this nature, the more in- 
teresting the subject will be. 

To show the motion of waves, page 12, article 36, 
use a rather long and heavy piece of rope. By shaking 
one end of this up and down, the children can follow a 
wave as it travels along from the hand to the other end 
of the rope. By this experiment the child learns that 
the zvave travels, while the material or substance of 
which it is composed has little if any horizontal motion ; 
the wave travels, the rope does not ; in the same way 
the wave of water travels forward, while the water itself, 
unless disturbed by other influences, simply rises and 
falls with each succeeding wave. 

E. M.— 15. 



170 COMPLETE GEOGRAPHY. 

As stated in article 37, the tide moves like a wave. 
Do not let the children get a wrong impression, from 
the sweeping in and out of tide waters in river mouths, 
harbors, etc., that the waters of the open ocean have 
this same regular horizontal flow back and forth. There 
the tides are not appreciable at all ; that is, there is 
almost no horizontal motion of the water itself, and the 
slow, gradual rise and fall of the great body a few feet 
twice in twenty-four hours can not be perceived. It is 
only when the tide approaches the shore and meets with 
resistance from the shoaling bottom that the waters 
attain appreciable height and a horizontal motion. 
Speaking of this point, and of the variation in the 
height of the tides at different places on the same coast, 
J. E. Hilgard, ex-superintendent of the United States 
Coast Survey, says : ' * When the movement reaches 
shallow water, in approaching the shores, the horizontal 
motion [of the ivave^ not of the water\ is partly trans- 
lated into vertical motion upon the sloping bottom, and 
it is thus that the tides attain sensible vertical height. 
Now, where a bay or indentation of the coast presents 
itself, opening favorably to the tide-wave thus devel- 
oped, and decreases in width from its entrance toward 
its head, the tide rises higher from the mouth upward. 
This is due to the concentration of the wave by the 
approach of the shores, and to the gradual shoaling of 
the bottom." 

You should explain Jioiu the vapor, mentioned on 
page 12, article 41, is formed. Illustrate by the vapor 
rising from a wet shoe when held near the fire. 

To show the class that the same number of sun's rays 
are distributed over a greater space nearer the poles 
than at the equator, page 13, article 58, draw the 



HE A T AND COLD. 



171 




accompanying diagram on the board. The columns x 
and y contain an equal number of sun's rays, and it is 
very evident that the distance cd on the earth's surface 
near the pole is much greater than the distance ab near 
the equator ; that is, the rays that fall near the poles are 
more widely distributed than those which fall near the 
equator. Another way of 
stating the case would be 
that more rays fall in the 
same space at the equator 
than at the poles, and 
consequently the space re- 
ceiving the most rays is 
the hottest. To show this, 
lay off the space ce at the 
pole equal to the space 

ab at the equator. It is evident that more rays fall in 
the space ab than in the space ce^ and consequently ab 
is hotter than ce. 

The subject of minerals, treated on page 15, article 
97, and more fully on page 17, article 16, may be made 
extremely interesting. Specimens should be obtained 
if possible, showing the various minerals in their native 
state. Many interesting books and articles have been 
written in reference to the formation of coal, salt, and 
petroleum. The entire subject opens a wide field for 
instructive composition lessons. 

The subject of the ''Surveys of the Public Land," 
treated on page 26, is an important one, and should be 
thoroughly learned, especially in those states where the 
land has been surveyed in the manner described. In all 
such states, children should know where the base-line 
and principal meridian for their state are situated, and 



172 COMPLETE GEOGRAPHY. 

should be drilled until they can locate any tract of 160 
acres in the state. 

It will be noted that in the text of the Complete 
Geography comparative statements are usually made in 
regard to areas in addition to the actual figures. It is 
more important that these comparative statements 
should be learned than that the statistics should be 
memorized ; for if relative sizes are clearly defined in 
the mind, approximate areas at once suggest themselves 
when the area of the basis of comparison is known. 
Thus, a child in Indiana is taught the exact area of his 
own state in figures thoroughly. Knowing this, he learns 
that the United States would contain one hundred states^ 
the size of Indiana (page 21, article 3); and this fact, 
which at once gives him approximately the area of the 
United States, is easily retained in the memory. The 
same method should be used in teaching the comparative 
areas of different states in our own country, and the 
areas of the principal countries of the world as com- 
pared with the United States. That the eye may assist 
the mind effectively, the different sectional maps of the 
United States have been drawn on a nearly uniform 
scale, so that states in different sections can be thus 
brought into direct comparison as to size. 

In the map work, due attention should be given to 
the prominent places in corresponding latitudes which 
are given on the side margins. There is an astonishing 
amount of ignorance on this subject, even among per- 
sons who consider themselves well educated; and there 
are few persons, perhaps, who will not be surprised at 
their own erroneous ideas, as developed by some of the 
facts brought to light by this feature of the study. 

Contour lines, both in the sea and on land, should re- 



ADDENDA. 173 

celve attention, especially those which appertain to your 
own state. The teacher should explain carefully to the 
class that those on the land represent lines of equal alti- 
tudes above the surface of the sea, and that those in the 
water represent lines of equal depths below the surface 
of the sea. 

Map drawing is important as a great aid in fixing the 
shapes of countries in the memory. It should be com- 
menced with the study of the maps, and every pupil 
should draw all the maps that are given in the Com- 
plete Geography. The teacher may use his discretion 
as to the reproduction of minute details, but outlines, 
topographical features, and principal cites should be re- 
quired in all cases. 

Particular attention is called to the table of definitions 
of foreign geographical terms on page 102. As maps 
of foreign countries are studied, this table should be 
consulted, and the more important translations should 
be memorized. 

The general review questions on page 100 cover the 
ground thoroughly, and every child that is supposed to 
have "finished" geography should be able to answer 
every question on that page. An examination on these 
questions without special preparation will test the 
thoroughness of the work accomplished. 



GRAMMAR 



XIV. 

HARVEY'S ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION. 

GENERAL REMARKS. —Harvey's Elementary 
Grammar and Composition is a text-book in which 
the topics relating to technical grammar and analysis are 
arranged in the order in which they should be studied 
by beginners. It contains carefully prepared illustra- 
tions of the method of instruction to be employed in 
teaching these topics. In the preparation of this manual 
for teachers, it has not been thought necessary or ad- 
visable to do much more than (i) to designate the 
parts of the course of study to which special attention 
must be paid in order to secure the most desirable 
results ; (2) to suggest the introduction of supplementary 
exercises where they can probably be used with advan- 
tage ; (3) to point out the sections that need only to 
be read and made subjects of conversation ; (4) to em- 
phasize by repeated statement the advice, ''never to 
define a term or enunciate a principle without first pre- 
paring the mind of the pupil to grasp and comprehend 
the meaning and use of the term defined or the prin- 
ciple enunciated." 

The ** sentence-making " exercises may be supple- 
mented indefinitely and used in all parts of the course. 
At first all the words to be used in the construction of 
a sentence should be given ; then, a part of them, the 
pupils supplying those necessary for a complete state- 

(177) 



178 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

ment. When they have learned to do this readily, they 
should be taught that groups of words are sometimes 
used like single words. Single words and groups be- 
ginning with prepositions may then be written on the 
blackboard, and the pupils required to arrange them 
into sentences without changing the order of the words 
in the groups. The use of the clause can be taught in 
a similar manner. In an elementary course, the terms 
phrase and clause ought never be used, but each combi- 
nation of words should be called a group, and be re- 
garded as a single thing not to be separated into its 
parts. Pupils taught in this manner soon become apt 
critics of their own language and that of their com- 
panions. 

The value of picture lessons In ''composition" can 
hardly be overestimated. The manner in which they 
should first be given Is illustrated on pages 22 and 23. 
As soon as pupils can dispense with the assistance of a 
teacher in the use of pictures, they may be taught to 
describe what is to be seen through windows or doors, 
to write stories suggested by pictures, and to describe 
scenes with which they may be familiar. Excellent 
results can be secured by work of this kind in high 
schools, as well as In schools of lower grade. To an 
observant teacher or pupil, the pictures that adorn the 
Avails of so many of our school-rooms will suggest inter- 
esting themes for compositions. Any intelligent, pains- 
taking teacher, by using the method recommended, can 
make this a most Interesting and attractive part of the 
course of study. In schools In which many different 
branches are taught and the number of classes is large, 
the recitation in technical grammar should be omitted 
occasionally and the time devoted to instruction and 



GENERAL REMARKS. 179 

practice in composition. Much will be gained and little 
lost by this "departure" from the **old way." 

Having been trained in sentence-making, in picture 
lessons, and in writing descriptions of real or imaginary 
events, pupils may be required to read a description of 
a single object several times, then to lay the book or 
paper containing it aside, and reproduce its leading facts 
from memory. The description should never be re- 
ferred to while writing, either for facts or forrrts of ex- 
pression. Work similar to this should be done until 
the reproduction of a description becomes an easy task. 
Pupils may then be required to describe familiar single 
objects, at first using "plans" prepared by the teacher 
or eiven in the text-book. The teacher should talk 
with the pupils about objects to be described, criticize 
"plans" submitted to him for examination, and assist 
in obtaining desired information, but he should insist on 
each pupil's using his own language in his descriptions. 
The description of single objects, especially of manu- 
factured articles, buildings, etc., is excellent work for 
pupils in the lower classes of high schools. 

The definitions of technical terms ought to be re- 
peated in parsing exercises until they can be given 
without hesitation ; they may then be dispensed with or 
given only in occasional reviews. Grammatical rules are 
usually statements of facts — repetition helps to fix them 
in the memory. Too frequent repetition, however, is 
wearisome and unnecessary. 

Refer to the rules for the use of capital letters and 
marks of punctuation, as they are needed in sentence- 
making and composition. Pupils will thus learn the 
practical application of rules at the time they are learn- 
ing their formal statement in technical language. 



l80 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

PART I. — Elementary Course. 

Objects. Definitions. — Talk with the pupils about the 
senses, objects, words, language, spoken language, 
written language, and grammar, but do not require 
them to commit to memory the definitions on pages 
7 and 8. 

TJie Sentence. — Teach the subject in the manner indi- 
cated in the text. Require pupils to learn and recite 
the directions to be observed in writing sentences. 

Sentence-making. — In developing the idea of each kind 
of sentence, use many illustrations in addition to those 
in the text. Observe the direction given on page lo. 
Use this lesson quite frequently as a review. 

Quotation Marks. — As an additional exercise, require 
pupils to write sentences in which one states what 
another says without using his exact language. The 
pupil will thus learn how to write both direct and in- 
direct quotations. 

Parts of Speech. — The object of this lesson is to show 
that words can be divided into classes. Use the same 
word with different meanings, and in different parts of 
sentences, to illustrate what is meant by the terms 
meaning and use, **I saw a drove of cattle." "He 
drove the cattle over the bridge." " Gold is a metal." 
" Mary has a gold pencil," and similar sentences may be 
employed for this purpose. 

The Noun. — Do not neglect to teach that a noun is 
the name of an object and not the object itself Show, 
also, that by placing the, this, that and other definitive 
words before a common noun, a particular meaning is 
given to it without making it a proper noun. Do not 
omit any of the exercises. Be thorough in teaching 



ELEMENTAR V CO URSE. 1 8 I 

how to form the plurals of nouns. Illustrate each rule 
in assigning it as a part of a lesson. 

Abbreviations and Contractions. — Require pupils to pay 
particular attention to the use of capital letters and the 
period in writing abbreviations, and to the writing of 
words in which the apostrophe takes the place of 
omitted letters. Examine critically the written exercises 
of pupils, and see that the work required is done cor- 
rectly. 

Elements of a Sentence. — Develop the idea of each 
part of a sentence before permitting pupils to learn its 
definition. Prepare oral exercises to supplement those 
given on page 20. Require pupils to analyze sentences 
orally before using diagrams. 

The Vej'b. — Pupils should be required to fill all the 
blanks with appropriate words. Develop the idea of 
the objective element before attempting to teach the 
classification of the verb. Read the remarks carefully in 
assigning lessons, but do not require pupils to commit 
them to memory. Observe the directions given in the 
text of this and succeeding lessons. 

Incorrect Language. — The '* cautions" in the Ele- 
mentary Grammar need not be committed to memory. 
Refer to them in correcting the exercises in the text- 
book as well as the language of the pupils in conversa- 
tion and sentence-making. 

Sentence-making. — Be thorough in teaching the appli- 
cation of the two rules given on page 29. See that the 
blanks in the exercises are filled with appropriate words, 
and that the pupils make no mistakes in the use of the 
comma. 

TJie Adjective. — Require pupils to make separate lists 
of quality-words, pointing-out-words, and number-words 



1 82 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

before permitting them to learn the definitions. Refer 
to the dictionary for definitions of the words descriptive 
and definitive. Do not introduce the subject of com- 
parison in a formal way, but use adjectives in the com- 
parative or superlative degree without referring to their 
forms. Tell the pupils that the articles tJie, a, and an 
are usually classed among the definitive adjectives. 

Sentence-making. — The teacher should supplement the 
exercises in the lesson on page 34 by others prepared 
by himself Pupils should not be permitted to slight 
the work required in this part of the course. Examine 
all written work with care, and see that pupils observe 
the directions given in preceding lessons. 

TJic Participle. — Do not hurry in developing the idea 
of this part of speech. Show by a large number of 
illustrations in what particulars the participle resembles 
the verb and the adjective. In teaching the definitions, 
call attention again and again to the fact that the present 
participle denotes continuance, and always ends in ingy 
and that the perfect participle always denotes completion. 
Be sure that the pupils learn how the compound parti- 
ciple is formed. 

The Pronoun. — Teach the definition in the manner in- 
dicated on page 42. It is not necessary that the pupil 
should learn the definitions of the kinds of pronouns at 
this time. 

TJie Adjective Element. — Pupils generally learn readily 
how to distinguish this element from the others. Be 
careful in teaching the application of the terms posses- 
sive and appositive. Teach that possessives and apposi- 
tives are usually nouns or pronouns, although they are 
used like adjectives as modifiers of nouns. The rules 
for the formation of the possessive case should be 



ELEMENTARY COURSE. 1 83 

learned, but no attempt made to develop the idea of 
case. Use sentences written by pupils as supplementary 
exercises in analysis and parsing. 

Kinds of Prvnouns : i . Perso7ial Pronouns. — Be careful 
to teach the subject oi person before attempting to teach 
the definition of the term personal pronoun. The exer- 
cises on page 49 are specially important, and none of 
them should be omitted. 

2. Possessive Pronouns. — Do not fail to make the pupil 
understand that a possessive denotes a possessor only, 
while a possessive pronoun denotes both the possessor and 
the thing possessed. 

3. Relative Pronouns. — Develop the idea of a illative 
clause by the use of oral illustrations. Supplement the 
exercises on pages 54 and 55 by sentences prepared by 
teacher or pupil. 

4. Interrogative Pivnouns. — As additional exercises in 
analysis and parsing, use sentences written by pupils. 
These sentences should contain both interrogative pro- 
nouns and interrogative adjectives. 

The Adverb. — Do not omit any of the exercises on 
page 58. In developing the idea of the adverb, as well 
as that of the adverbial element, use oral illustrations. 
Require pupils to substitute adverbs for the adverbial 
clauses, when practicable, in the exercises on page 60. 

TJie Preposition. — Require pupils to point out the 
groups of words used as modifiers in the exercises on 
page 63 ; then teach them that each group begins with 
a word that shows the relation between the words it 
connects. Call this connective a Preposition, and the 
modifying group of words a Phrase. The definitions of 
the two terms may then be learned and the exercises 
analyzed. 



1 84 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

The Infinitive. — Pupils should be made to understand 
the difference between expressing action and affirming it 
before being permitted to commit the definition of the 
infinitive to memory. Use oral exercises to supplement 
those given on page 66. 

The ConjufKtion. — The definition should be taught in 
the manner indicated in the oral lesson on page 6^. 
Show by illustrative examples in what respects conjunc- 
tions differ from prepositions and relative pronouns. 

Compound Elements. — Require pupils to commit to 
memory the directions for writing compound elements. 
Use sentences written by pupils as exercises in analysis. 

Simple and Compound Sentences. — Require pupils to 
write sentences, each containing a part common to the 
others, and then to combine them into single sentences ; 
also, to write many compound sentences, and, when 
possible, to separate them into simple ones. 

Complex Sentences. — Call attention to the remarks on 
page 74, and teach that a sentence in which a clause is 
used as subject or predicate, is complex, one of its ele- 
ments containing a subject and a predicate. Use many 
sentences, in addition to those on pages j6 and ^J, as 
exercises in reducing and enlarging sentences. 

Reviezv. — Review Part I thoroughly before beginning 
Part II. In this review, sentence-making and composi- 
tion should not be neglected. They are more important 
exercises than analysis and parsing. 



I 



PART II. — Advanced Course. 

Gender, Person, a7td Number. — Use oral illustrations in 
teaching the definitions, and use the sentences required 



ADVANCED COURSE. 1 85 

to be written as exercises in analysis. As soon as the 
idea of a property is developed and the definition 
learned, require the term to be used in parsing exer- 
cises. Do not require the rules for the formation of the 
plurals of nouns to be committed to memory and recited 
in the order in which they are arranged in the text, but 
let pupils refer to them until they can write correctly 
the singular and plural forms of nouns in common use. 

Case. — Use the illustrations on page 83 in showing 
that the term case is used to denote the 7'elation of a 
noun or a pronoun to other words, and oral illustrations 
in showing the use of the same term to denote \kiQ form 
of a noun or pronoun. Call attention to the fact that 
nouns have only two case-forms, — the nominative and 
the possessive, — the nominative case-form being used in 
the nominative, objective, and nominative-absolute cases. 
Review the lesson on pages 43 and 44 thoroughly, and 
require pupils to write a large number of sentences con- 
taining nouns in the possessive case singular and plural. 

Properties of the Pronoun: i. Personal Pronoims. — Refer 
to the remarks on page 89 occasionally in parsing exer- 
cises, and require pupils to state the substance of each 
remark in their own language. 

2. Possessive Pronouns. — Teach that in parsing a pos- 
sessive pronoun by the first method, no attention what- 
ever should be paid to the name of the possessor, the 
part to be parsed being the name of the thing possessed. 
This part may be in any case except the possessive. 
Teach, also, that in using the second method, one of 
the two words into which the pronoun may be sepa- 
rated, may be owning, having, or possession. 

3. Relative Pronoims. — Teach orally how to distinguish 
a relative from a personal pronoun. Be patient, and do 

E. M.— 16. 



1 86 ELEMENTARY GRAMMAR. 

not hurry in this part of the course. Each paragraph 
following the description of ''double relatives" on page 
93 may be made the subject of a separate lesson. 

4. Interrogative Pronouns. — Require the remark on 
page 95 to be studied carefully, and be sure that the 
pupils understand the meaning and use of the term sub- 
seqtient. In review lessons, show how interrogative pro- 
nouns are used in indirect questions. 

False Syntax. — Do not require the "Cautions" to be 
learned in teaching pupils how to correct examples in 
false syntax. Refer to them as occasion may require. 

TJie Adjective. — Review definitions already learned. 
Teach that nioi'c^ most, less, and least, in such expres- 
sions as more cairful, most careful, less careful, and least 
careful, are adverbs. The lists of pronominals need not 
be committed to memory, and no technical terms 
should be employed in parsing, except those given in 
the "Order of Parsing." 

Properties of the Verb. — Review as directed on page 
103. 

1. Voice. — Require the verbs in given sentences to be 
changed from the active to the passive voice, or from 
the passive to the active voice. At first, let the pupils 
point out the parts of each verb in the passive voice. 

2. Mode and Tense. — Having taught the definition of 
the indicative mode, teach the subject of Tense. Do 
not assign long lessons. To teach a single mode 
thoroughly may require all the time usually set apart 
for several recitations. 

3. Number and Pej^son. — Refer to Rules XIII, XIV, 
and XV as occasion may require. 

4. Conjugation. — The paradigms need not be com- 
mitted to memory; but pupils should prepare synopses 



ADVANCED COURSE. 1 87 

and write sentences containing verbs in any required 
form, voice, mode, tense, number, and person. 

The Adverb. — Review the lessons on pages 57, 58, 59, 
and 60. Do not require pupils, in parsing exercises, to 
tell to what class an adverb belongs. 

The Preposition. — Require the statements made on 
page 127 to be studied carefully. Let the pupils state 
the substance of each paragraph in his own language. 
In written exercises in analysis and in diagrams, use the 
symbol [ ] to indicate the omission of a preposition. 

The Conjunction. — Review the lesson on page ^J, and 
teach the definition on page 129; then review pages 68, 
69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, -je, and TJ. 

Ellipsis. — Let the pupils supply the words omitted in 
their reading lessons and in sentences used as drill exer- 
cises. Write on the blackboard a series of elliptical 
sentences to show that any part of a sentence may be 
omitted except the part that will suggest the rest. 

Abridgment. — Require pupils to change many complex 
sentences to simple ones by abridging their subordinate 
clauses ; also, to write sentences containing abridged 
propositions. Let the pupils state in their own lan- 
guage the substance of the three parts of the remark 
on page 134. Refer to this remark in parsing the nouns 
or the pronouns in abridged propositions. Teach that 
the noun or the pronoun on which an infinitive depends 
is called the subject of that infinitive. 



XV. 

HARVEY'S REVISED PRACTICAL GRAMMAR. 

GENERAL REMARKS.— In Harvey's Elementary 
Grammar and Composition, the arrangement of 
the topics relating to technical grammar and analysis 
corresponds to the order in which they should be studied 
by beginners. In his Practical Grammar, the topics are 
arranged in a different manner — those relating to the 
same subject or division of a subject being grouped to- 
gether. 

In many schools, the Practical Grammar is used in 
teaching classes of beginners. To secure the best re- 
sults in such schools, the topics properly belonging to 
an elementary course of instruction should be studied in 
an order similar to that indicated in this manual. Hav- 
ing mastered this course, pupils can pursue, easily and 
profitably, the study of those more difficult topics usu- 
ally regarded as belonging to an advanced course. 

In mastering this elementary course, pupils will learn 
(i) to identify words as belonging to certain classes, 
called parts of speech ; (2) to analyze sentences, or to 
separate them into their principal an'd subordinate ele- 
ments ; (3) to define the technical terms employed, and 
to use them intelligently ; (4) to express thoughts in 
properly constructed sentences ; (5) the correct use of 
capital letters, marks of punctuation, etc. 

In teaching classes of beginners, omit the definitions 
on page 7 and all of Part I. When necessary in sen- 

(188) 



GENERAL REMARKS. 1 89 

tence-making and composition, refer to the rules and 
remarks on the use of capitals, small capitals, etc., in 
Part I, but do not require pupils to commit them to 
memory. 

In an advanced course, reference should be made to 
Part I for definitions of terms used in orthography, and 
it may be advisable to have occasional drill exercises in 
the analysis of syllables and words ; but systematic in- 
struction in orthography need not be made a part of 
the course. 

The "Cautions" should be studied carefully, and 
pupils required to correct the examples in false syntax. 
P'requent reference should be made to these cautions in 
correcting the spoken and written language of pupils. 
It is by no means necessary that they be learned and 
recited memoriter. 

In assigning lessons, the teacher should designate the 
** Remarks" to be studied, and refer to them frequently 
in conducting recitations. Pupils may occasionally be 
required to state in their own language the substance of 
remarks assigned as a part of a lesson. 

The ** Rules" may be learned when they are needed 
in parsing exercises. In some instances, the whole or a 
part of a remark may be used instead of a rule — as in 
parsing a noun or a pronoun changed from the nomina- 
tive to the objective case in abridging a proposition, or 
a noun or a pronoun in the nominative case after a par- 
ticipial noun in an abridged proposition. (See Remark 
3, page 198, and the second part of Remark i, page 
182.) 

In all written exercises, require pupils to observe the 
rules for the use of the marks oi punctuation. In drill 
exercises in punctuation, use the methods recommended 



190 PRACTICAL GRAMMAR. 

in the **Note to Teachers" on page 252. The exer- 
cises in the text-books should be studied until the appli- 
cation of each rule and remark is understood. 

The subjects under the heading of * * Figures of Lan- 
guage " may be referred to for the definitions of such 
technical terms as pupils may have occasion to use in 
literary exercises. Refer to these terms and their defini- 
tions when appropriate illustrations occur in reading les- 
sons. 

At least one third of the time usually set apart for 
recitation should be spent in sentence-making and com- 
position. It is to be regretted that in many schools no 
attention whatever is paid to these important exercises. 

Pupils must know how to analyze a given sentence 
before they can intelligently represent its analysis in a 
diagram. The proper use of diagrams, therefore, is to 
supplement oral or written analysis. 

As a rule, pupils should not begin the study of tech- 
nical grammar before they are ten years old. 



Elementary Course. 

{The references are to Harvey's Revised Practical Grammar.^ 

The Noun: definition. — Page 7. In teaching the defi- 
nition, use the first paragraph of the oral lesson on page 
29. 

Analysis: definitions. — Lesson I, page 136. Do not 
require or permit pupils to commit the definitions to 
memory before they have learned the uses of the terms 
to be defined. Do not omit any of the exercises in 
sentence-making on page 137. Rule I, page 245, to be 
observed in writing. 



ELEMENTAR V CO URSE. 1 9 1 

A^ialysis. — Lesson II, page 137. 

The Noun. — Use the second and third paragraphs of 
the oral lesson on page 29 in teaching the Common Noun 
and the Proper Noim. Require pupils to point out the 
nouns in their reading lessons, and to tell whether they 
are common or proper. 

Model for Parsing. — ''John is an orphan." John is 
a noun: it is a name; proper: it is the name of a par- 
ticular person. OrpJian is a noun; (why?) common: it 
can be applied to any one of a class or kind. 

A7ialysis. — Lesson III, page 138, and the classification 
of sentences with respect to use on page 144. 

TJie Adjective. — Use the first four paragraphs of the 
oral lesson on page 42 in teaching the definition. Do 
not omit any of the exercises on page 26. 

TJie Adjective. — Use the last three paragraphs of the 
oral lesson on page 43 in teaching the definitions of the 
two kinds of adjectives. Require the pupils to classify 
the adjectives as descriptive or definitive in the exercises 
on page 26. 

Model for Parsing. — ''Ripe apples are in that box." 
Ripe is an adjective: it is a word used to describe a 
noun ; descriptive : it describes a noun by denoting some 
quality. That is an adjective; (why?) definitive: it de- 
fines without expressing any quality. 

The Profioun. — Use the first paragraph of the oral 
lesson on page 56 in teaching the definition. Require 
pupils to point out the pronouns in the exercises on 
page 26 and in their reading lessons. 

Model for Parsi7ig. — "Who came with you?" Who 
is 2i projioun ; it is a word used instead of a noun. You 
is a pronoim; (why?). 

Analysis. — Lesson IV^ page 138. Analyze all the ex- 



192 PRACTICAL GRAMMAR. 

ercises, and require pupils to point out and classify all 
the nouns and adjectives. Use these diagrams: 

I. Apples are ripe. 2. Birds fiy. 

Apples I are : ripe. Birds | fly. 

\ r~ 

The Verb. — Teach the definition in the manner indi- 
cated on page 26, and in the first paragraph of the oral 
lesson on page 73. Require pupils to write sentences 
containing verbs denoting action. 

Analysis. — Lesson V, page 139. Use this diagram: 

Children love play. 

Children | love | play. 
\ 

The Verb. — Use the last three paragraphs of the oral 
lesson on page 73 in teaching the definitions of the 
three kinds of verbs. Use oral exercises in drills on 
the application of the terms transitive, intransitive, and 
copulative. 

Models for Parsing. — i. *' Pupils recite lessons. " Re- 
cite is a verb; it denotes action; transitive: it requires an 
object to complete its meaning. 2. ''The horse runs." 
Runs is a verb; (why?) i7itransitive : it does not require 
the addition of an object to complete its meaning. 3. 
*' Liberty is sweet." Is is a vei^b ; (why?) copulative : it 
is used to connect a subject and a predicate, and to 
make an assertion. 

Analysis. — Lesson VI, page 140. Do not omit any 
of the exercises in sentence-making. Use sentences 
written by pupils as additional exercises in analysis. 
Require pupils to point out the nouns, pronouns, and 



ELEMENTARY COURSE. 1 93 

adjectives in all the exercises. Be patient, and do 7iot 
hutry. Use these diagrams: 

I. Cold winter comes. 2. The man reads his paper. 

winter | comes. man | reads | paper. 



Cold I The I his 



The Participle. — Teach the definition in the manner 
indicated on page 27. Call attention to the difference 
between a participle and a verb. 

Teach the classification and definitions as given on 
pages 78 and 79. Require pupils to point out and 
classify the participles in the exercises on pages 81 and 
Z2. Use the model for parsing on page 81. 

Analysis. — Lesson VII, page 141. Teach orally the 
use and the definition of the term subordinate element. 
Use these diagrams : 

I. The wind blows violently. 2. Very loud reports were heard. 

wind I blows reports | were heard. 



The I I violently. loud 



Very 



The Advej'b. — Use the oral lesson on page 115 in 
teaching the definition. 

Model for Parsing. — *' He acted wisely." Wisely is 
an advei'b ; it is used to modify a verb. 

The Phrase. — Teach the use of a prepositional phrase, 
calling it a "group of words." Let pupils point out 
the phrases in the exercises following the definition of 
the preposition on page 28. Use this diagram : 

The weary soldiers rested at noojt by the roadside. 
soldiers I rested 



E. M.-17. 



weary | 


at noon 


The 


by roadside. 




the 



194 PRACTICAL GRAMMAR. 

The Preposition. — Use the oral lesson on page 12 1 in 
teaching the definition. Define the term phrase (see 
page 162). 

Model for Parsiitg. — "The horse ran over the hill." 
Over is a preposition ; it shows the relation between its 
object and some other word : it shows the relation be- 
tween hill and ran. 

Analysis. — Teach the definition of the term simple 
sentence given on page 145. Use sentences written by 
pupils as drill exercises in analysis. Many of these sen- 
tences should contain phrases used as adjective or ad- 
verbial elements. 

The Pronoun. — Teach the classification of the pro- 
noun, using the oral lesson on page 56. Illustrate the 
use of the terms first person, second pei^son, and tJiird 
person before teaching the classification. 

Models for Pai'sing. — i. **I have seen him." / is a 
pjvnoun ; it is a word used instead of a noun: personal; 
it shows by its form that it is of the first person. 2. 
"That book is Jiers.'" Hers is 2, pronoun ; (why?): pos- 
sessive; it represents both the possessor and the thing 
possessed. 3. "I am he whom ye seek." Whom is a 
pronoun; (why?): relative; it represents a preceding word 
to which it joins a limiting clause. 4. "Who goes 
there?" WJio is 2, pronoun ; (why?): interrogative; it is 
used in asking a question. 

Analysis. — Teach the definition of the term Complex 
Sentence given on page 145. Require pupils to point 
out the principal and subordinate clauses in the exer- 
cises. Use the exercises on page 146, and the first six 
exercises on page 166 as illustrations. Do not analyze 
the subordinate clause in a complex sentence, but teach 
its use as an element. Require pupils to write many 



ELEMENTARY COURSE. I95 

sentences containing subordinate clauses. Analyze these 
sentences, using these diagrams : 

I . He who studies will 2. Flowers will bloom when spring 

learn. comes. 

He I will learn. Flowers I will bloom 



who studies | | when spring comes 



TJu' Conjunction. — Use the oral lesson on page 127, 
and the exercises on page 29. Teach the uses and the 
definitions of the two kinds of conjunctions. 

Model for Parsing. — "Eli and Silas will improve if 
they study." And is a conjunction; it is a word used to 
connect words : it connects the w ords Eli and Silas. If 
is a conjunction; it is a word used to connect clauses: it 
connects the clauses Eli and Silas will improve and they 
study. 

Analysis. — Teach the definition of the term simple 
element given on page 168. Use any appropriate exer- 
cises in preceding lessons as illustrations. 

Analysis. — Teach the definition of the term compoimd 
element, using exercises on page 174. Use these dia- 
grams : 

I. John and Seth read well. 2. They run swiftly and gracefully . 

John and Seth | read They | run 



well. I swiftly and gracefully. 



Analysis. — Teach the definition of the term Compound 
Sentence given on page 146, using oral exercises. In 
analysis, use this diagram : 

Talent is something, but tact is every thing. 
Talent \ is : something, but tact | is : thing. 



every 



196 PRACTICAL GRAMMAR. 

The Interjection. — In analyzing a sentence containing 
an interjection or any attendant element, use this dia- 
gram : 

Hark! sotne one co?nes. 

Hark! 

one I comes. 



some 



Review. — Review thoroughly the instruction given in 
this course, requiring pupils to prepare most of the 
exercises used in analysis and parsing. 



Advanced Course. 

The Noun. — Review the definitions already learned, 
and teach the use and definition of the term participial 
noun. Show by illustrative examples that the words 
the, this, that, these, those, etc., give a particular mean- 
ing to common nouns when placed before them, but do 
not convert them into proper nouns; as in the sentence, 
*' The horse is in that stable." Do not require pupils to 
commit any of the remarks to memory, but refer to 
them when necessary in assigning lessons or conducting 
recitations. 

Properties of Nouns: i. Gender. — Refer to the remark 
following the definition, and to other remarks as occa- 
sion may require. 

2. Person. — Note particularly Remark 2. 

3. Number. — Write on the blackboard lists of nouns 
in the singular number, and require pupils to write their 
plural forms on slate or paper. The rules for the for- 
mation of the plural of nouns can be learned much more 



ADVANCED COURSE. ig'J 

easily by writing well-selected illustrations than in any 
other way. Require pupils to write the singular and 
plural forms of nouns found in reading lessons; also, 
the plurals of the names of common objects. 

4. Case. — Show that the term case denotes (i) the ;t- 
latio7z of a noun or a pronoun to other words, and (2) 
the fonn of a noun or a pronoun. Require pupils to 
write the possessive singular and possessive plural of 
nouns, referring to the remarks when necessary. Do 
not neglect to teach the meaning and use of the terms 
direct object and indirect object (see page 38, Section 32, 
Remark). Teach, also, that in the cases referred to 
in Remark 3, page 154, the object denoting rank, 
office, occupation, character, or species may be called an 
Attributive Object. Use these diagrams : 

I. I gave him an apple. 2. They have chosen Mr. Ames speaker. 



I I gave 



^«>'^ -ru I V, u , /^Mr. Ames 

apple. They | have chosen | <^ speaker. 

I an 



In showing that nouns and pronouns in the possessive 
case or in apposition are adjective elements, use this 
diagram : 

Mr. Oldroyd, my lawyer, is Henry's uftcle. 

Mr. Oldroyd | is : uncle. 

I lawyer , [ Henry's 

I my 

The Adjective. — Review definitions already learned. 
Teach the definitions of the three kinds of pronominal 
adjectives, but do not require pupils to commit the lists 
to memory. Refer to the words in these lists in 



198 PRACTICAL GRAMMAR. 

parsing and composition exercises, and in correcting 
false synj;ax. The adverbs niorey most, less, and least, 
when used in the comparison of adjectives, may be re- 
garded as adverbial elements. Do not neglect to teach 
the correct use of the pronominals. 

The Pronoun: i. Personal Pronouns. — Show that the 
term case denotes the form of a personal pronoun as 
well as its relation to other words, and that it may be 
used to denote the form only ; — as its, when not used in 
connection with other words in a sentence, is a personal 
pronoun in the possessive case ; and Jiim, when used in 
a similar manner, a personal pronoun in the objective 
case. Teach that //, when used to introduce a sentence 
in a peculiar way, may be called an apparent subject, be- 
cause it requires the verb following it to be in the third 
person and singular number, although the real subject, 
which is placed after the predicate, may denote plu- 
rality ; as, * * It was pleasant to see the man and to hear 
him talk.^^ Refer frequently to the remarks on pages 
59, 60, 202, and 203. 

2. Possessive Pronouns. — Point out the difference be- 
tween a possessive pronoun and a personal pronoun in 
the possessive case. Show that the former represents 
the possessor and the thing possessed, while the latter 
represents the possessor only. Teach that in parsing a 
possessive pronoun by the first method, the name of 
the thing possessed is the part considered, and that no 
attention whatever is paid to the name of the possessor; 
also, that in using the second method, oivning, having, 
or possession may be one of the two words into which a 
possessive pronoun may be separated. 

3. Relative Pronouns. — Ascertain that the pupils know 
how to distinguish a relative from a personal pronoun. 



ADVANCED COURSE. 



199 



Show why a relative pronoun is never found in a prin- 
cipal clause. Refer to the remarks on pages 65, 66, and 
202 in parsing compound relatives and the words ivhat 
and that. In analyzing, refer to remarks on page 176. 
4. Interrogative Pronouns. — Require pupils to study 
Remark i, Rule IX. Teach the use of the interrogative 
pronouns in indirect questions used as objective ele- 
ments. Use the following diagrams in analyzing sen- 
tences containing relative or interrogative subordinate 
clauses : 



I . T/ie vessel which you see 
yonder is a sloop. 

vessel I is : sloop. 



2. I do not know who is in the 
garden. 



The 
you 



see 



which 



yonder 



I I do know 



who I is 



in garden. 



the 



not 



TJie Vej'b : I . Classes zvith inspect to use. — Review 
definitions of these classes. Teach pupils how to ascer- 
tain from its meaning and use, or by referring to a dic- 
tionary, whether a verb in a given sentence is transitive, 
intransitive, or copulative. In class drills, use the exer- 
cises following the remarks. 

2. Classes zvith respect to form. — Teach that when the 
sound represented by the vowel or digraph in the simple 
form of the verb is changed in the past indicative and 
perfect participle, the verb is irregular ; as, hear is an 
irrecfular verb, because the sound of the vocal element 
in the simple form is changed in heard, the past indica- 
tive and perfect participle. 

Properties of the Verb: I. Voice. — Require pupils to 
study carefully the exercises following the remarks. 



200 PRACTICAL GRAMMAR. 

2. Mode and Tense. — Teach the use and definition of 
the indicative mode ; then teach the subject of tense, 
referring to the remarks for illustrations and explana- 
tions. Develop the idea of each mode, and ascertain 
that all the pupils have a clear conception of it before 
permitting them to learn the definition. Omit none of 
the exercises. Teach the form and use of the sti^ength- 
ened copida, then analyze the exercises on page 165. 

3. Ntwiber and Person. — Refer to the remarks on page 
94, and those under Rules XIII, XIV, and XV, as oc- 
casion may require. 

Forms. — Pupils should write sentences containing ex- 
amples of these forms. Special attention should be paid 
to progressive and passive forms. See that pupils can 
tell without hesitation which participle is used in each 
form. Use the sentences written by pupils as exercises 
in analysis and parsing. 

Conjugation. — Pupils need not commit the paradigms 
to memory, but they should prepare synopses and write 
sentences, each containing a verb in any required voice, 
form, mode, tense, number, and person, until they can 
identify any verbal form at sight, and use it readily in 
sentence-making and composition. (See ''Exercises," 
page 106.) 

hifinitives. — In teaching the infinitive mode, require 
the pupils to study the remarks on page '^J, and those 
following Rules XVI and XVII. For models for the 
analysis of sentences containing infinitives, see pages 
164 and 165. The infinitive in a strengthened copula is 
always an adverbial element modifying the finite verb ; 
but, in analyzing, it is not necessary to separate such a 
copula into its parts. Use the diagrams at top of next 
page. 



ADVANCED COURSE. 20I 

I. To hear is to obey. 2. James likes to work. 

To hear | is: to obey. James | likes | to work. 

I \ 

3, Clare Jtce seems to be busy. 4. That apple is not good to eat. 

Clarence | seems to be : busy. apple | is : good 



That I I not [ to eat. 



5. He has wheat to sell. 
He 1 has I wheat 



to sell. 



TJie Adverb. — Require pupils to enlarge sentences by- 
substituting phrases or clauses for adverbs. Although 
an adverbial phrase may be parsed as a single adverb, it 
is sometimes advisable to parse each word in such a 
phrase. (See Remark 9, page 216.) Refer to the 
"General Remarks" as well as to the ''Cautions" in 
correcting false syntax. In analyzing a sentence con- 
taining an adverbial clause, use this diagram : 

He defends himself whejt he is attacked. 
He I defends i himself 



he I is attacked. 



when 



The Pi^eposition. — Remark 5, page 122, and Remark 
I, page 200, should be studied very carefully. Use 
Model XX, page 164, in analyzing a sentence containing 
a noun or a pronoun in the objective case without a 
governing word, — also this diagram: 

The weary traveler will reach Chicago to-morrow. 
traveler | will reach | Chicago 



weary | | [ ] to-morrow. 
The 



202 



PKACTICAL GRAMMAR. 



The Conjunction. — Do not require pupils to learn the 
classifications given in the remarks, or to use the terms 
employed in them in parsing exercises. When neces- 
sary, refer to the rem.arks on pages 219 and 220. Use 



these diagrams 



I. He came and went like 
a pleasant thought. 


2. Give 7ne 7ieither poverty nor 
riches. 


He 1 came and went 


me y" neither 


1 




[thoiij 1 Give y^ poverty 




like thought. 


\^ 7ior 
^x^ riches. 






pleasant 
a 



3. He learns because he is studious. 

He I learns 

[ (because) he [ is : studious. 



Ellipsis. — Require pupils to supply words omitted in 
reading lessons and in elliptical sentences selected to be 
used as drill exercises. Use these diagrams : 



I. Build me here seven 
altars. 

me 



[ye] I Build 



altars. 



here 



[ seven 



2. He spake as one having 
authority. 

He I spake 

I [ (as) one [ [speaks] 

I I . 
having | authority. 



Abridg7ncnt. — Require pupils to abridge subordinate 
clauses, and ascertain that they can always distinguish 
between abridged propositions and elliptical sentences. 
They should also be required to state in their own lan- 
guage the substance of the three parts of Remark i, 
page 182. Refer to appropriate parts of this remark in 



ADVANCED COURSE. 



203 



parsing nouns and pronouns in abridged propositions. 
Use these diagrams : 



I. / know him to be a 
sailor. 



I I know 



him 



to be — sailor. 



2. I was not aware of his being 
7ny ene^ny, 

I I was : aware 



not 



of being — enemy. 



his 



my 



3. The shower havitig passed, 
we pursued our journey. 

we I pursued | journey. 
I I shower j our 
The 
having passed, 



4. His being a convict was not 
then known. 



being — convict 




His a 


was known. 






then 
not 



A noun or a pronoun on which the infinitive depends 
in an abridged proposition is called the subject of the 
infinitive. In parsing it, many prefer to use the follow- 
ing rule: ''The subject of an infinitive is in the ob- 
jective case." 



HISTORY 



XVI. 

THE ECLECTIC HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 

XT is much to be regretted that the study of history, 
which can be made so interesting, should so often 
prove unprofitable drudgery ; and that children, with a 
natural love of narrative, should become so thoroughly 
disgusted with the subject as to retain, as long as they 
live, a dislike for historical reading. 

In the vast majority of cases, these unhappy results 
are due entirely, or in large part, to bad methods of 
teaching. To attain the best possible results, three 
things are essential : 

1. The teacher must be properly prepared to handle 
the subject. 

2. He must take into careful consideration the age 
and capabilities of his pupils, the resources of the 
neighborhood, and the time he is able to give, in con- 
nection with other branches, to this subject. 

3. He must adopt a method in conformity to these 
conditions, and must plan his work carefully in advance 
in accordance with this method. 

The Teacher's Preparation. — There are few teach- 
ers, perhaps, in our common schools, who have made 
a specialty of the study of history, and yet the limited 
resources of the ordinary country school and neigh- 
borhood in the way of books of reference, demand that 
the teacher be thoroughly well-read in the history of 
the United States in order to supply as far as possible 

(207) 



208 THE ECLECTIC HISTORY. 

this deficiency. We do not mean to imply that a teacher 
must be a student of history in the way of making 
original research, — although this kind of work would 
certainly add to his usefulness as a teacher, and, as is 
elsewhere suggested, should by all means be engaged in 
so far as local history is concerned, — but we do mean 
to say, that, if a teacher wishes to make his instruction 
in history interesting and profitable, he must give the 
subject more than casual attention, and must not limit 
his class to any text-book on the subject. In many 
cases, the children's only source of information will be 
the text-book. The teacher, therefore, must store his 
mind with historical events, incidents, and anecdotes not 
to be found in the ordinary text-book, and be able to 
present them to his class in a manner so interesting as 
to create a taste for the study of historical literature. 
It will readily be understood that a text-book of 
history must necessarily use the fewest words that will 
serve to give an outline of great events, and must there- 
fore leave out many incidents of the liveliest interest, 
but of no great historical importance. These incidents, 
however, are to the text what the juice is to an orange, 
and a large supply of them should be at the command 
of every teacher who aims to do valuable work in this 
field of study. This necessitates reading, on the part 
of the teacher, of some of the standard authorities, such 
as Bancroft, Hildreth, etc., and the wider the range of 
his reading the better. A very full list of such works 
may be made from the references at the close of chap- 
ters in the Eclectic History of the United States. It is 
not supposed that all the works mentioned can be ob- 
tained and read by every teacher of history, but a very 
full list is given with the expectation that at least some 



THE TEACHER'S PREPARATION. 209 

of the books will be witltin the reach of every teacher, 
and that he will consult as many of them as time and 
circumstances will permit. 

Again, it is not supposed that a teacher will endeavor 
to impart all the information he gains in this way to 
his class. The teacher is, on the contrary, called upon 
to exercise the most careful judgment as to when to 
confine himself to the text-book and when to add to 
the information it presents. The facts of history are 
not all of the same value. Certain great events stand 
out in bold relief, giving form and shape to the whole. 
It is these great events that should be dwelt upon and 
emphasized, and impressed upon the minds of the 
pupils. To do this, the teacher must make them inter- 
esting by attractive and forcible narration, and must 
present them again and again in different lights as 
viewed by different authors. 

Sometimes the teacher will need to illustrate the 
general condition or state of a certain period by partic- 
ular instances. Again, he will wish to emphasize 
some great character, such as Washington, Hamilton, 
or Lincoln, by striking passages from other histories or 
biographies. Or the attention of the class must be di- 
rected particularly to some important battle or some 
great principle. It will be seen that this kind of work 
demands thorough knowledge of the subject, sound 
judgment, and a careful planning of work before teach- 
ing is commenced. 

Restricting Conditions. — The principal obstacles en- 
countered by an enthusiastic teacher of history in coun- 
try district schools, are the limited time usually allotted 
to the study and the meager resources of the neighbor- 
hood in books of reference. In many schools, history 

E. M.— 18. 



2 I O THE ECLECTIC HISTOR V. 

is crowded into one or two terms, and a year at the 
utmost is considered a full allowance. We would urge, 
if it can possibly be managed, that a^ least two years be 
given to the subject, as, in our opinion, that amount of 
time is necessary in order to obtain the best results. 
Two or three recitations a week, for two years, will be 
found preferable to a daily recitation for one year. The 
former plan gives both teacher and pupil the requisite 
time for outside reading and the proper preparation of 
the lesson. Each teacher, however, must be his own 
judge as to whether this plan is practicable in his par- 
ticular school, and must modify his method of teaching 
accordingly. 

Where the locality is without books to which the chil- 
dren can be referred, the teacher must exert himself to 
supply as much extra valuable and interesting informa- 
tion as possible from his own store of knowledge. The 
difficulty of obtaining this kind of information is fully 
appreciated, and much valuable and interesting detail, — 
which hardly has a place in the text proper, but which 
could not be obtained by pupils without a larger library 
of reference than most neighborhoods afford, — has there- 
fore been condensed in the notes of the Eclectic His- 
tory. But the teacher should not depend upon these 
notes alone. He should bear in mind the fact that the 
more reading he does, and the greater variety of little 
incidents and fresh facts he can tell the class, the more 
Hfe and interest will he infuse into the recitations. 

The restrictions of age and capability are also im- 
portant. The teacher must be warned against treating 
the subject in such a way as to discourage pupils by 
presenting difficulties too great for their minds to grasp. 
Pupils should certainly be incited to effort, but it is best 



METHODS OF TEACHING. 211 

to keep well within the limits of their understanding and 
capacities, especially in the early part of the course. 

While the limitations of the ordinary district school 
are thoroughly comprehended, it is of the utmost im- 
portance that the aims of the teacher should be high; 
we therefore make the following suggestions as to the 
method of teaching on the supposition that the time 
necessary for effective work zuill be taken, and that the 
teacher will exert himself to secure the requisite books 
of reference for his pupils. If this can not be done in 
all cases, at least the teacher can approach as near as 
possible to what he knows to be the correct method of 
teaching. 

As has been remarked in regard to other studies, it 
is not claimed that the method here advised is the only 
correct method of teaching the history of the United 
States, but it is the one urged because it is believed to 
be the most profitable and the most interesting method 
to pupils. 

Methods of Teaching. — In selecting a method of 
teaching history, one must consider not only the capa- 
bilities of pupils and the resources av^ailable, but also 
the objects to be accomplished, and how he can best 
accomplish them. 

The primary object in teaching this subject, as usually 
and perhaps fairly considered, is to give the pupil a 
clear and tolerably comprehensive view of the history of 
the United States from the earliest records to the 
present day. But there is a secondary object of but 
little, if any, less importance, which should be kept 
constantly in view, and which should modify very 
largely the means to be adopted in attaining the first 
object. 



212 THE ECLECTIC HISTORY. 

This secondary object, which is by many high author- 
ities considered the primary one in importance, is to 
arouse in the pupils a love and an enthusiasm for the 
study, which they will carry with them into after life, 
and which will give a most valuable bent to their future 
individual study and reading. 

The teacher who simply takes any given text-book, 
and gives out lesson after lesson, from page to page, or 
from such a paragraph to such a paragraph, and re- 
quires the pupil to repeat the words of the book, or 
even the ideas of the book in his own words, limiting 
his instruction merely to this, is teaching a book; he is 
not teaching the history of the United States in a way 
that will be in the least likely to prove either interest- 
ing or of any lasting benefit to his pupils. To be sure, 
this is the easiest method for the teacher, but it is also 
a method that means sure death to all interest on the 
part of both teacher and pupil. It may properly be 
called the text-book method, and usually consists in 
cramming the children with what must be to them a 
mere mass of dry-as-dust statements of events, facts, 
and dates, strung along in chronological order, with the 
dead-level monotony of balls on a numeral frame. This 
method may teach children history ; it certainly will 
teach them to dislike it, and will unavoidably prejudice 
them against all historical reading forever after. 

The text-book method is probably the most common 
of all bad methods; but, on the other hand, it would be 
just as absurd and profitless to go to the opposite 
extreme, and treat children twelve to fifteen years of age 
as though they were college students ; that is, discarding 
the text-book altogether, to attempt to teach by lectures 
alone, requiring the children to take notes, and hand in 



THE GERMAN METHOD. 213 

written themes on topics clearly beyond their compre- 
hension, such as "The Protective Tariff," "The Mon- 
roe Doctrine,'^ etc. 

In Germany, history is taught more successfully, per- 
haps, than in any other country in the world, and while 
the German method, pure and simple, is entirely inap- 
plicable to the common schools of America as at present 
conducted, yet it is so thorough and rational that we 
give a brief account of it, intending to refer to it in the 
method we shall suggest for adoption. 

In Germany, the teacher of primary history is pre- 
pared for his work by a special course of study, and 
confines his teaching to this one branch of education. 
He has a most thorough knowledge of his subject, and 
is an expert teller of stories. The children are started 
in their historical course at nine or ten years of age, 
and the first two years are employed with biographical 
sketches of prominent historical characters, presented in 
the form of interesting and impressive stories, to which 
the children listen with absorbed atte^ition. This course 
covers the ground of universal history. The next three 
or four years, the children are taken over the same 
ground, but from a different point of view : they now 
listen to the description of events, and have their atten- 
tion directed to the causes, purposes, and results of his- 
torical movements. The children are now fifteen or 
sixteen years of age, and have completed two distinct 
views of universal history. It will be noticed that thus 
far the children have simply listened — the teacher has 
done all the talking. This method is based upon the 
idea that children up to this age are incapable of the 
unremitting application necessary to the profitable study 
of a text-book ; while, on the other hand, they are per- 



214 ^'^^^ ECLECTIC HISTORY. 

fectly capable of acquiring the information imparted by 
the teacher in the form of entertaining stories. It is 
held that this method is a true economy of time, and 
that by its use children are thoroughly interested instead 
of being worn out and discouraged. 

After completing the two courses of lectures de- 
scribed, the pupils take up some special topic or 
period, — perhaps the history of their own country, — on 
which they spend three or four years of study, and are 
then ready for the higher and more philosophical course 
of the university.* 

American teachers, however, must adapt their methods 
to the requirements of American schools, and though 
the German method is admirable in its results, it is un- 
fortunately beyond our reach at present. While neither 
the text-book method, the college method, nor the 
German method should be attempted in our common 
schools, yet it is believed that, by a judicious combina- 
tion of certain features of each of these methods, the 
very best results possible may be obtained, taking into 
consideration the restrictions of our schools. 

The text-book is without doubt indispensable. It 
should be used, however, simply as the outline of the 
great picture, which must be filled in and colored by 
both pupil and teacher. Children should be encouraged 
to consult as many books as possible, and thus be freed 
from the idea that history is a book, or that it is the 



■^ For a full exposition of the German method, and for much 
valuable information on methods of teaching history, especially in 
advanced schools and colleges, the teacher is referred to " Methods 
of Teaching and Studying History," published by Ginn, Heath 
& Co. 



THE COLLEGE METHOD. 21 5 

product or summary of any one person's thoughts and 
opinions. At the same time, the text-book must be 
used very largely as a guide. If properly compiled, as 
in the case of the Eclectic History, it will show at a 
glance the relative importance of characters and events, 
and will thus indicate the features which demand especial 
attention. The danger is, not that the text-book will 
be used too little, but that it will be used improperly. 

The German idea of imparting information to young 
children by means of interesting stories is extremely 
valuable, and this plan should be followed to the utmost 
possible limit. It is at this point that the ordinary 
teacher in American common schools is particularly 
weak. As before stated, the teacher is called on to 
exercise good judgment in selecting his material. He 
should make a careful study of the entire subject, and, 
viewing the field as a whole, grade the various events in 
the order of their importance. Those of the first rank 
must, of course, receive the greatest amount of atten- 
tion in the way of extraneous information. The teacher 
should strive to make his lectures, or rather his stoines, 
as interesting as possible from the child's point of view, 
and must never forget that it is to children, and not to 
adults oi mature mind, that he is addressing himself 

The college method, as usually followed in our lead- 
ing institutions of learning, includes, not only lectures by 
the professor, but also the writing of themes by the 
students. Different topics are assigned to students for 
their personal investigation and study, and they are re- 
quired to draw their own conclusions, after reading 
various authorities on the subject, and then to present 
these conclusions in the form of a written theme. Here, 
again, we receive a hint of practical value. If books 



2 1 6 THE E CL EC TIC HIS TOR Y. 

of reference are at all available, it will prove a source 
of great interest to children to read upon properly se- 
lected topics, and to write their discoveries in the form 
of compositions. This work will not only prove inter- 
esting, but it will also serve to fix facts more firmly in 
the mind than any other method of teaching. 

Great care must be taken in assigning these subjects 
for composition. In the first place, the teacher is nec- 
essarily restricted by the resources of the neighborhood 
in books of reference. In assigning topics for composi- 
tion work, find out definitely, if you can, just what 
books on the subject are available, and then direct the 
children where to look for information. General direc- 
tions to children to read all they can find about a topic 
will be of little value. See to it, also, that compositions 
on historical subjects are in the child's own language. 
The copying of passages from books, word for word, 
should not be allowed, except, of course, the per- 
fectly proper use of short quotations, acknowledged as 
such. 

The teacher should review the entire field as he did in 
selecting material for stories, and should assign only 
topics of real importance. He should be especially 
careful, in this part of the work, not to over-estimate 
the capabilities of pupils, and assign to children topics 
and the discussion of questions which are food for 
statesmen's minds. It is eminently proper to direct the 
attention of children — those who are old enough to 
study history at all — to causes, purposes, and results, 
provided the topics under discussion are within their 
comprehension ; but it is absurd to try to make them 
understand, or to interest them in, grave questions of 
Political Economy, International Law, and abstruse 



LOCAL HISTORY. 21/ 

points of statesmanship generally. Let them deal in 
their composition work with the biographies of the most 
eminent historical characters, and with interesting and 
important facts rather than with theories. 

Local History. — Begin your work by awakening a 
sense of reality in the mind of the pupil, and make him 
sure that the persons, places, and events of which he 
reads were as vivid and actual as any that he has seen. 
The question immediately arises, How is this best ac- 
complished ? 

It has been well said by an eminent professor, in 
writing on this subject, that ''History, like charity, be- 
gins at home ; " and certainly local history, which has to 
do with scenes, and perhaps persons, familiar to the chil- 
dren, possesses a peculiar charm and interest, and im- 
parts to the mind a vivid sense of reality. For this 
reason, local history should be made the introduction to 
the general text-book. You thus accustom the child 
to associate spoken or printed descriptions with actual 
scenes and events. In other words, the child learns to 
realize the actual existence in the past of that concern- 
ing which he is studying to-day. The habit of viewing 
history in this light must be formed at the outset, and 
then interest in the study will be maintained to the 
close. This is a point of vital importance, and should 
not be undervalued. 

The teacher should make a careful, searching study 
of all the local history of his neighborhood, township, 
county and state, as contained in old official documents, 
private papers, legends, or traditions. Any thing that 
will throw light on the local history, and at the same 
time be likely to prove of value or of interest to the 
class may properly be used, and there is hardly a state 

E. M.— 19. 



2l8 THE ECLECTIC HISTORY. 

in the Union that is not replete with material of this 
character. 

When you have your material together, arrange it in 
the form of stories suitable for children. The stories 
concerning the immediate neighborhood should come 
first in the order of telling, and, so far as possible, the 
children should be taken to see all the localities to 
which your stories refer. If any characters at all prom- 
inent in history are associated with your neighborhood, 
short biographical sketches of these should also be 
given, and the teacher will probably be able to obtain 
better material for these sketches in the documents, 
letters, etc., of the neighborhood than is afforded by 
any book published. By all means tell these stories, 
rather than read them, if you would make vivid and 
lasting impressions on the children. 

After taking up the text-book, continue to make 
much of familiar places and natural objects so far as 
they are mentioned in the history, or can be connected 
appropriately with the text. The tiny brook that runs 
through the meadow by the school-house may have a 
pre-Revolutionary history which will portray vividly to 
the child's mind the general condition of danger and 
hardship of that period. The states of the Atlantic 
coast, *'The Dark and Bloody Ground," and **The Ter- 
ritory North-west of the Ohio River," afford the ambi- 
tious and energetic teacher an almost inexhaustible field 
for labor in this direction. This work of original inves- 
tigation demands both time and trouble, but it is also a 
kind of work that should possess a strong interest for 
the teacher himself. If patiently persisted in, it will in 
the end prove a pleasure rather than a labor ; or if a 
labor, at least one which returns a rich reward. 



MAPS AND DIAGRAMS. 2lg 

Maps and Diagrams. — When we consider how much 
the physical features of a country have to do with its 
progress, we appreciate how closely geography and his- 
tory are connected, and how essential a knowledge of 
the former is to a proper understanding of the latter. 
A barren and rocky soil, or a richly productive one, 
determines the pursuits, and in a large measure the 
character of the inhabitants of different localities. A 
mountain barrier here and a navigable stream there de- 
termine the advance of civilization, — and so on. It is 
essential, then, to the understanding and interest of the 
pupils that they should be thoroughly instructed in the 
geography before undertaking the history of the United 
States. 

But the teacher should go farther than this ; he should 
require that history be studied in direct connection with 
geography, thus combining events and localities so that 
one is inevitably associated in the mind with the other; 
and this method of teaching should be carried through- 
out the work from beginning to end. With this object 
in view, the Eclectic History is well supplied with 
full, accurate maps and diagrams ; but no text-book 
can possibly be made so full in this respect but that a 
teacher should add maps and diagrams of his own for 
further and more explicit illustration. Moreover, the 
children themselves should be called upon to make 
sketch-maps and diagrams, either on the board or on 
paper, of the particular locality under study in any 
given lesson. 

Assigning Work for the Class. — In assigning ad- 
vance work for the class, the teacher should give the 
pupils all the assistance he can towards making their 
lessons interesting and profitable. Young children es- 



220 THE ECLECTIC HISTORY. 

pecially need to be guided into proper channels of 
thought, reading, and study. 

Assign lessons by topics. It is not meant by this 
that all topics can be finished in one lesson, or that one 
topic is always sufficient for a lesson. That, of course, 
depends upon the topic; and one of the chief objects of 
this method is to lead children to consider the relative 
importance of topics, which will be impressed upon 
them by the amount of time and study given to each. 

When you assign a lesson in the text-book, always 
read over the advance with the class, explaining any 
thing that demands your help, and directing attention 
to the most important events. Explain wJiy these 
events are important, and direct the thought of the 
class particularly to causes, purposes, and results of the 
great events in our history. Use your discretion in 
assigning certain topics merely as subjects for reading, 
and others for written work. Some teachers find an 
advantage in giving extra merit-marks or ** honors" for 
additional items of information brought to the class con- 
cerning the characters and events of the lesson. These 
items will usually be collected from books of reference, 
but sometimes from unauthentic sources, — newspaper 
articles or the tales of the village Rip Van Winkle. 
The 'teacher should be careful to sift the true from the 
false in all such contributions; and it will nearly always 
be advisable to direct children where they can find inter- 
esting facts, rather than trust to their blind groping in 
the dark. 

Dates. — While quite a full list of dates is presented 
in the Eclectic History, the young teacher should be 
warned against attaching too much importance to chro- 
nology. Dates should be viewed in their proper light. 



TEACHING DATES. 221 

They are simply the mile-stones on the journey of 
progress ; as such they are extremely useful, but they 
are not of more importance than the surrounding 
scenery. 

Dates should not be taught in a list, in chronological 
order, as though one event was as important as another. 
Select ten, fifteen, or twenty of the most important 
dates in the history — as your judgment dictates — and 
teach these tJioroiigJily. Now, if the text be properly 
taught, the relative times of minor events will be re- 
membered easily, and their dates will group themselves 
naturally about the prominent or focal dates with- 
out much apparent effort of memory. For example, 
the date of the Declaration of Independence may be 
taken as one of the focal dates, which must be fixed 
thoroughly in the mind. If the text be taught as it 
should be, the pupils will have no difficulty in remem- 
bering the relative times of the various events that 
cluster about this focal date ; and there will be no neces- 
sity of cramming them with the exact figures of such 
dates as those of the battle of Bunker Hill and the 
evacuation of Boston, on the one side, or of the arrival 
of Lord Howe in New York and the battle of Long 
Island on the other. 

Many schemes have been devised for assisting the 
mind to recall dates. In our opinion, diagrams made 
on the blackboard or on paper by the scholars them- 
selves are far better than stereotyped charts. If a black- 
board can be permanently spared for the purpose, let it 
be divided by perpendicular lines into six sections, the 
extremes to right and left being much broader than the 
rest, while the fourth and fifth are broader than the 
second and third. A large sheet of bristol-board or of 



222 THE ECLECTIC HISTORY. 

paper will answer the purpose if a blackboard is not 
available, but it, too, should be kept before the eyes of 
the class for reasons which will shortly appear. 
Over the first section, on the left, write : 

America before 1492. 

In the center of this left hand section, leaving margins 
on four sides, draw a square and write within it: 



Colofiy in Greenland., . . . . A. D. g8j. 
Visit of Lief to New England, . A. D. looo. 
Icelandic Settlements A. D. looj. 



Over the other five sections respectively write the 
numbers of the centuries, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, as shown 
in the diagram on the opposite page. Under these let 
a pupil note briefly, by the direction of the rest of 
the class, the most important events and dates of each 
day's lesson as it is recited. The blank spaces will be a 
reminder of how much is yet to be learned, while the 
filling up of the sections will be a record of progress. 

The events of the fifteenth century are of course very 
few, as related to America, and the ' ' Discovery of 
America by Columbus " should be written as large as 
its importance demands. This is the focal date of that 
century, but a few dates may be added, if thought de- 
sirable, from Notes 1-4 of Chapter III. If other than 
the focal dates are thus recorded, the latter should be 
made prominent by being written larger than the others, 
by being underscored, or in the best manner that may 
suggest itself to the teacher. 



TEACHING DATES. 



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224 THE ECLECTIC HISTORY. 

A moment or two will be well spent before each reci- 
tation in reviewing from this chart the items, if any, 
noted on the previous day. At the end of the week, 
let all the events so far learned be read from the chart, 
or recited, with their dates, until each of the six main 
divisions of the book has been thus learned and re- 
viewed chronologically. 

Prejudices. — Neither author nor teacher should allow 
his personal prejudices to appear in his educational 
work. A text-book is not a brief, nor is a teacher a 
lawyer employed to argue a case. A properly prepared 
text-book aims to present facts, not opinions, as exactly 
as they can be ascertained from the most reliable sources 
of information. It is the teacher's duty to perform his 
share of the work in the same impartial spirit. How- 
ever strong the personal feelings may be in the matters 
of religion and politics, neither author nor teacher 
has the right to obtrude such personal feelings in the 
school-room, where children, whose parents may be of 
widely different opinions and feelings in such matters, 
meet for instruction. 

The public schools of America should present nothing 
needlessly offensive to Jew or Gentile, Protestant or 
Catholic, Republican or Democrat. At the same time, 
the truths of history should be fearlessly set forth by 
both author and teacher, regardless of the fact that the 
truth can not always be universally agreeable. For ex- 
ample, it can not be a source of pride for inhabitants of 
New England to learn the events of the "Salem witch- 
craft," or of the persecution of the Quakers and others 
by their forefathers ; nor for Protestants to learn of the 
persecution of the Catholics in Maryland, nor for Cath- 
olics to read of the massacres of the Huguenots. The 



PREJUDICES. 225 

results of the battles of Bull Run and Gettysburg can 
not be equally pleasant reading to one who is prejudiced 
on either side. But the statement of many such facts is 
absolutely necessary to history, and it seems almost 
needless to say that it would be radically wrong to dis- 
tort or suppress such facts when they have a direct 
bearing on historical results. All such facts should be 
stated by both author and teacher fearlessly but impar- 
tially. 

The author of the Eclectic History has taken the 
greatest pains to make that book absolutely impartial in 
all statements which necessarily touch upon the religious 
or political sentiments of its readers. The highest pos- 
sible compliment that could be paid to the author^s 
discrimination in this respect consists in the fact that 
the book has been assailed only by fanatics and extrem- 
ists, and by fanatics and extremists of opposing factions. 
The teacher is urged to conduct his recitations in the 
same intelligent and unpartisan spirit. He must not 
allow himself to be led into a partisan or sectarian dis- 
cussion by questions which his pupils may sometimes 
ask. He will often find it necessary to exercise a 
spirit of liberality and self-control. 

The most difficult part of the history of the United 
States to teach, in this particular, is of course that part 
which treats of the Civil War, fought to conclusion 
more than twenty years ago. It is time that the educa- 
tors of the present day were doing all in their power to 
allay the bitter feelings aroused in that sad time, and, 
whether Northerner or Southerner, teach the facts of 
that war as they are now obtained from the official 
records of both sides. It is believed that the Eclectic 
History presents these facts as impartially as it is possi- 



226 THE ECLECTIC HISTORY. 

ble to be done. Teach them as impartially as they are 
presented. If you are a Northerner, avoid teaching on 
the assumption that every one who fought on the 
Southern side was necessarily a scoundrel and a villain. 
If you are a Southerner, be equally liberal towards the 
opposing ranks of twenty years ago. 

Prejudice nearly always involves the distortion of the 
truth ; therefore, the stronger your feelings are on any 
subject, the more carefully should you guard against 
their leading you astray. Especially should this fact be 
remembered by one whose duty it is to enlighten the 
minds of coming generations. 



XVII. 

THE ECLECTIC HISTORY.— THE APPENDIX. 

THE Appendix of the Eclectic History of the 
United States should by no means be neglected ; 
nor should the matter it contains be considered of 
trivial importance because it is placed in an appendix, 
and not included in the text proper. It seems neces- 
sary to make these remarks, owing to the fact that 
many teachers are in the habit of paying no attention 
whatever to an appendix simply because it is an appen- 
dix, totally disregarding the possible importance of the 
information to be derived from its careful study. 

The matter in the appendix of the Eclectic History 
may be used as a basis for two distinct courses of 
study, embracing information especially valuable to 
pupils of country schools, from the fact that it is not 
usually elsewhere accessible to such pupils, while at the 
same time it is information they certainly should possess. 
The two courses may be formally divided as follows: 

1. The acquisition and transfer of territory, and the 
growth and development of the United States. 

2. The political history and form of government of 
the United States. 

As stated, the matter in the text-book is intended to 
be used merely as a basis of instruction ; it should be 
supplemented by lectures or talks by the teacher. Both 
courses of study demand work, however, on the part of 
the pupils, which it is thought will prove interesting as 
well as profitable. 

(227) 



228 THE ECLEC TIC HI ST OR V. 



Acquisition and Transfer of Territory. — Growth and 

Development. 

The map following page 360 of the Eclectic History, 
and the explanations accompanying it, are to be used as 
a basis for the first part of this course of study. It will 
be necessary for the teacher to procure, also, a small 
blackboard, say three or four feet square, on which 
should be painted in white an outline of the United 
States, including Alaska. The materials for constructing 
this board and map are probably within reach of every 
teacher. One or two pine boards, a little black and less 
white paint, and a few hours' work are all that is re- 
quired. This base-map, as it may be called, which is to 
be used throughout the course, should show simply the 
outline of the United States as it exists at present, the 
principal streams, and the meridians and parallels. The 
latter will be found very useful aids in locating the 
different interior boundary lines, which are to be filled 
in with chalk as occasion demands. The present boun- 
dary lines of states should not be painted on the base- 
map, as they would detract from the clearness of the 
work to be performed. 

Having prepared your base-map, proceed to trace the 
acquisition and transfers of territory of the United 
States from the Revolution to the present day, using 
the map in the book as a guide for the interior boun- 
daries. This work requires the greatest care, otherwise 
serious blunders will be made, and your instruction may 
do more harm than good. 

The first thing to be done is to show the boundaries 
of the United States as established by the treaty of 



I 



THE BASE-MAP. 22g 

Versailles (see Article 309), and the boundaries of the 
thirteen original states. Have the pupils open their 
books at page one of the Appendix, and, reading the 
explanations there, tell you where to draw the outlines 
of the several states in order. If you can procure 
colored crayons — two or three colors will be sufficient — 
it will add materially to the clearness of your map to 
shade adjoining states in different colors. It will be 
observed that many of the states extended from the 
Atlantic coast to the Mississippi River, at this period, 
while Massachusetts and Connecticut were divided into 
eastern and western portions, with other states lying be- 
tween them. The northern and eastern boundary of the 
present state of Maine was not settled until 1842 (see 
Article 436), but may be laid down as forming part of 
the boundary hne of the United States at this time. 
When the map is completed, put the proper title and 
date, 1783, on it, and have the class copy it on bristol- 
board; or, better still, in a book, and mark it ''No. i." 
As will be seen, there is to be a regular series of these 
maps drawn, and the children should be req.uired to pre- 
serve the set in some neat form. 

The first change of boundary lines occurred, we find, 
in 1784, when Virginia ceded her western lands to the 
United States. This was followed rapidly by similar 
cessions of other states, until in 1790 the changes be- 
came so great that a new map is called for, showing the 
boundaries at that date. Trace the boundaries for this 
map as you did those for Map No. i, requiring the pupils 
to study the key and give you instructions how to lay 
the boundaries down. Insert on this map the date of 
the several cessions, following the map in the book as a 
guide. Give the map its title, ''The United States in 



230 THE ECLECTIC HISTORY. 

1790," and mark it "No. 2." Have the children copy 
and preserv^e this, as before. 

Make a map for every decade, 1800, 18 10, etc., and 
also a map of the country at the time of the several 
accessions or limitations of territory in 1803, 18 19, 1842, 
1845, 1846, 1848, 1853, and 1867, marking on each 
map the changes, with their dates, that have taken place 
since the date of the map preceding. 

As each of these maps is completed, that portion of 
the text of the Eclectic History which bears directly 
upon the changes noted should be read over by the 
pupils with the map before their eyes. Many facts are 
thus impressively brought out and stamped on the 
memory. For example, a study of the map of 1820 
will at once show the importance of the contest over 
the admission of Missouri, etc. 

When these maps are completed,* each pupil will have 
a valuable portfolio showing the gradual territorial de- 
velopment of the United States. Moreover, they will 
have a knowledge of the subject which they could gain 
probably in no other way, and which they will always 
retain. 

In addition to showing the territorial development of 
the United States, the base-map can also be used to do 
excellent service in showing graphically the growth of 
the population and the distribution of the various lead- 
ing mineral and agricultural products of the country. 

It is a recognized fact that the graphic method of 
presenting facts of this nature is immeasurably superior 
to mere statistics and dry statements. Moreover, the 
amount of work required from the teacher is merely 
nominal. For example, the accompanying maps show 
the areas of the United States in 1790 and 1880, re- 



INCREASE OF POPULA TION. 



231 




AREA INHABITED IN 

1880. 

TOTAL POPULATION" 50,155,783 



spectively, inhabited by a population of more than one 
person to the square mile. These two maps show at a 
glance the tremendous stride of the country, in less than 
a century, far more forcibly than could be done by any 
amount of verbal description. It will take the teacher 



232 



THE ECLECTIC HISTORY. 



but a few moments to shade his base-map after these 
copies, and the children should be required to copy 
and compare the two maps. 

To show how the base-map should be used for dis- 
playing the distribution of the agricultural and mineral 
products of the country, let us take the corn crop, for 
example. The statistics of the United States Census 
Report for i88o give the total corn product of the 
United States at 1,754,591,676 bushels. Of this 
amount, eight states produced about 72 per cent, as 
follows : 

CORN. 

Total Production, U. S. Census 1880, 1,754,591,676 Bushels. 



RANK. 


LEADING STATES. 


PRODUCTION IN BUSHELS. 


I 

2 

3 
4 

5 
6 

7 
8 


Illinois . . 
Iowa . . . 
Missouri 
Indiana . . 
Ohio . . . 
Kansas . . 
Kentucky . 
Nebraska . 








325,792,481 
275,014,247 
202,414,413 
115,482,300 
111,877,124 
105,729,325 
72,852,263 

65,450,135 




72 Per Cent. 


1,274,612,288 



Now shade the states on your base-map, graduating 
the shading roughly to the production, as in the ac- 
companying map (page 233), and what do we see? The 
great corn-belt of the United States at once starts forth 
and impresses itself on the mind as perhaps it never 
has done before ; and we see, also, by a glance at the 



TEACHING STATISTICS. 



233 




E. M— 20. 



234 



THE ECLECTIC HISTORY. 



map, that the heart of this belt is the heart of the 
Mississippi Valley. 

With a very little expenditure of time or trouble, the 
teacher can show in a like manner the distribution of 
the other leading products. For the convenience of 
teachers the statistics of a number of products are pre- 
sented below. 

The maps of this series should be reproduced by the 
pupils, each one marked appropriately "Wheat," 
''Corn," etc., and preserved for reference. If it is 
thought desirable, pupils can be supplied with the signal 
service weather maps of the United States. These cost 
only fifteen to twenty cents a dozen, are easily procured, 
and answer the purpose capitally. They will save the 
pupils the labor and time of drawing a complete map of 
the United States for each product displayed. 

WHEAT. 

Total Production, U. S, Census 1880, 459,483,137 Bushels. 



RANK. 


LEADING STATES. 


PRODUCTION IN BUSHELS. 


I 

2 

3 

4 

5 
6 

7 
8 

9 


Illinois . . 
Indiana . . 
Ohio . . . 
Michigan . 
Minnesota 
Iowa ... 
California . 
Missouri . 
Wisconsin . 








51,1 10,502 
47,284,853 
46,014,869 

35.532,543 
34,601,030 
31,154,205 
29,017,707 
24,966,627 
24,884,689 




70 Per Cent. 


324,567,025 



A GRICUL TURAL ST A TISTICS. 



235 



OATS. 

Total Production, U. S. Census 1880, 407,858,999 Bushels. 



RANK. 


LEADING STATES. 


PRODUCTION IN BUSHELS. 


I 

2 

3 

4 

5 
6 

7 
8 


Illinois 




63,189,200 
50,610,591 
37,575.506 
33,841,439 
32,905,320 
28,664,505 
23,382,158 
20,670,958 


Iowa .... 






New York . . 
Pennsylvania 
Wisconsin . . 
Ohio .... 




Minnesota . . 
Missouri . . 






71 Per Cent. 


290,839,677 



BARLEY. 

Total Production, U. S. Censtis 1880, 43,997,495 Bushels. 



RANK. 


LEADING STATES. 


PRODUCTION IN BUSHELS. 


I 

2 

3 

4 

5 
6 

7 
8 


California . . 
New York . 
Wisconsin . 
Iowa . . . 
Minnesota . 
Nebraska . 
Ohio . . . 
Illinois . . 






12,463,561 
7,792,062 
5,043,118 
4,022,588 
2,972,965 

1,744,686 
1,707,129 
1,229,523 




84 Per Cent. 


36,975,632 



236 



THE ECLECTIC HISTORY. 



RYE. 



Total Production, U. S. Census 1880, 19,831,595 Bushels. 



RANK. 


LEADING STATES. 


PRODUCTION IN BUSHELS. 


I 

2 

3 
4 

5 
6 

7 
8 


Pennsylvania 
Illinois . . . 
New York . . 
Wisconsin . . 
Iowa .... 
New Jersey . . 
Kentucky . . 
Missouri . . 






3,683,621 

3.121,785 

2,634,690 

2,298,513 

1,518,605 

949,064 

668,050 

535.426 




78 Per Cent. 


15,409,754 



RICE. 

Total Production U. S. Census lE 




A GRICUL TURAL ST A TISTICS. 



2Z7 



BUCKWHEAT. 

Total Production, U. S. Census 1880, 11,817,327 Bushels, 



RANIC. 


LEADING STATES. 


PRODUCTION IN BUSHELS. 


I 

2 

3 


New York .... 
Pennsylvania . . 
New Jersey . . . 


4,461,200 

3.593.326 

466,414 




72 Per Cent. 


8,520,940 



COTTON. 

Total Production, U. S. Census 1880, 5,755,359 Bales. 



RANK. 


LEADING ST.\TES. 


PRODUCTION IN BALES. 


I 

2 

3 

4 

5 
6 

7 
8 

9 


Mississippi . . 
Georgia . . . 






963,111 
814,441 
805,284 

699.654 
608,256 
522,548 
508,569 
389,598 
330,621 


Texas . . . 




Alabama . . 
Arkansas . . 
South Carolina 
Louisiana . . 
North Carolina . 
Tennessee . . 






98 Per Cent. 


5,642,082 



HEMP. 

Total Production, U. S. Census 1880, 5,025 Tons. 



RANK. 


LEADING STATE. 


PRODUCTION IN TONS. 


I 


Kentucky, 91 Per Ct. 


4.583 



238 



THE ECLECTIC HISTORY. 



SUGAR AND MOLASSES. 

Cane. 

Total Production, U. S. Census i8 



RANK. 


ONLY STATES. 


HOGSHEADS OF 
SUGAR. 


GALLONS OF MO- 
LASSES. 


I 

2 

3 
4 

5 
6 

7 


Louisiana . . 
Texas . , . 




171,706 

4.95^ 

1.273 

601 
229 

94 
18 


11,696,248 

810,605 

1,029,868 

1,565,784 

138,944 

795.199 
536,625 


Florida . 




Georgia .... 




South Carolina 
Alabama . . 
Mississippi 






Total, United States, 


178,872 


16,573.273 



SorgJmm. 

Total Productio7i, U. S. Census 1880: Sugar, 12792 Lbs ; Molasses, 28,444,202 Galls. 



RANK. 


LEADING STATES. 


POUNDS OF SUGAR. 


—1 

GALLONS OF MO- 
LASSES. 


I 


Missouri .... 


300 


4,129,595 


2 


Tennessee 






265 


3,776,212 


3 


Kentucky . . 






554 


2,962,965 


4 


Illinois . . . 






1,801 


2,265,993 


5 


Iowa .... 






1,031 


2,064,020 


6 


Indiana . . . 






1,141 


1,741,853 


7 


Kansas . . . 






805 


1,429,476 


8 


Ohio .... 






270 


1,229,852 






6,167 


19,599,966 



AGRICUL TURAL ST A TISTICS. 



239 



Maple. 

Total Production U. S. Census 1880: Sugar, 36,576,061 Lbs.; Molasses, 1,796,048 Galls. 



RANK. 


LEADING STATES. 


POUNDS OF SUGAR. 


GALLONS OF MO- 
LASSES. 


I 

2 

3 

4 

5 
6 


Vermont .... 
New York .... 
Michigan .... 
Ohio 

Pennsylvania . . 
New Hampshire . 


11,261,077 
10,693,619 

3.423.149 
2,895,782 

2,866,010 
2,731.945 


128,091 
266,39c 
131,990 

495.839 
140,667 

79,712 






33.871.582 


1,242,689 



TOBACCO. 

Total Production U. S. Census 18 



472,661,157 Pounds. 



RANK. 


LEADING STATES. 


PRODUCTION IN POUNDS. 


I 

2 

3 
4 

5 
6 

7 
8 

9 - 
10 


Kentucky . . 
Virginia . . . 






171,120,784 
79,988,868 
36,943,272 

34.735.235 
29.365.052 
26,986,213 
26,082,147 
14,044,652 
12,015,657 
10,608,423 


Pennsylvania 
Ohio .... 




Tennessee . . 
North Carolina 
Maryland . . 
Connecticut . . 
Missouri . . 
Wisconsin . . 






93 Per Cent. 


441,890,303 



240 



THE ECLECTIC HISTORY. 



FARM PRODUCTS. 

Total Production, U. S. Census 1880: Value, $2,212,540,927. 



RANK. 


LEADING STATES. 


ESTIMATED VALUE OF 
ALL FARM PRODUCTIONS. 


I 

2 

3 
4 

5 
6 

7 
8 


Illinois , . . 
New York . . 
Ohio .... 






$203,980,137 
178,025,695 

156,777,152 
136,103,473 
129,760,476 
114,707,082 
95,912,660 
91,159,858 


Iowa .... 
Pennsylvania . 
Indiana . . 




Missouri . . 
Michigan . . 






50 Per Cent. 


$1,106,426,533 



COAL. 

Total Production, U. S. Census 1880, 71,067,576 Tons. 



RANK. 


LEADING STATES. 


TONS OF 2,000 POUNDS. 


I 

2 

3 
4 

5 
6 

7 
8 


. T^ . f Anthracite 
Pennsylvania 1^.^^^^^^.^^^^^^ 

Ilhnois 

Ohio 


28,640,819 
18,425,163 

6,115,377 
6,008,595 
2,228,917 

1,839.845 
1,461,116 

1,454.327 
, 946,288 


Maryland 

West Virginia 

Iowa 


Indiana 

Kentucky 




94 Per Cent. 


67,120,447 



IMPORTANT MINERALS. 



241 



PIG IRON. 

Total Production, U. S. Geological Survey 1882, 5,178,122 Tons. 



RANK. 


LEADING STATES. 


NET TONS. 


I 

2 

3 
4 

5 
6 

7 
8 

9 


Pennsylvania 
Ohio . . . 
New York . . 
Illinois . . 
Michigan . 
New Jersey 
Tennessee . 
Missouri 
Alabama . 








2,449,256 
698,900 
416,156 
360,407 
210,195 
176,805 
137,602 
113,644 
112,765 




90 Per Cent. 


4.675.730 



GOLD. 

Total Production, U. S. Census 1880: Value, $33,379,663. 



RANK. 


LEADING STATES AND TER. 


VALUE OF PRODUCT. 


I 

2 

3 
4 

5 
6 

7 


California . . . 
Nevada .... 
Dakota .... 
Colorado . . . 
Montana . . . 
Idaho .... 
Oregon .... 




$17,150,941 
4.888,242 

3.305.843 
2,699,898 
1,805,767 

1.479.653 
1,097,701 




97 Per Cent. 


$32,428,045 



Other gold producing States a?td Territories, in the order of their 
productions, are : (8) Utah. (9) Arizona. (10) Washington. (11) 
North Carolina. (12) Georgia. (13) New Mexico. (14) Wyoming. 
(15) South Carolina. (16) New Hampshire. (17) Virginia. (18) 
Alaska. (19) Maine. (20) Tennessee. (21) Alabama. 
E. M. -21. 



242 



THE ECLECTIC HISTOR V. 



SILVER. 
Total Production, U. S. Census 1880: Value, $41,110,957. 



RANK. 


LEADING STATES. 


VALUE OF PRODUCT. 


I 

2 

3 

4 

5 
6 


Colorado .... 

Nevada 

Utah 

Montana .... 
Arizona (estimated) 
California .... 


$16,549,274 
12,430,667 
4,743,087 
2,905,068 
2,325,825 
1,150,887 




97 Per Cent. 


$40,104,808 



Other silver producing States and Territories, in the order of 
their productions are : (7) Idaho. (8) New Mexico. (9) Dakota. 
(10) Oregon. (11) Michigan. (12) New Hampshire. (13) Maine. 
(14) Washington. (15) Georgia. (16) North Carolina. (17) South 
Carolina. (18) Alaska. 



MANUFACTURES. 

Total Production, U. S. Census 1880: Value, $5,341,838,? 



RANK. 


LEADING STATES. 


VALUE OF PRODUCT. 


I 

2 

3 

4 

5 
6 

7 
8 


New York . . . 
Pennsylvania . 
Massachusetts . 
Illinois .... 




$1,080,696,596 
744,818,445 
631,135,284 
414,864,673 
348,298,390 
254,380,236 
185,697,211 
165,386,205 


Ohio .... 




New Jersey . 
Connecticut . 
Missouri . . . 


• • 






71 Per Cent. 


$3,825,277,040 



POLITICAL HISTORY. 243 

Political History. 

Professor Moses Coit Tyler, of Cornell University, 
says: '*I teach American history not so much to make 
historians as to make citizens and good leaders for the 
state and nation." This should certainly be the aim, 
also, of every teacher in our common schools. Every 
boy in America should learn to appreciate thoroughly 
American political institutions, and should be so trained 
that when he grows to manhood he will be able to use 
his franchise intelligently. 

If time admits of a brief course in political history, 
the teacher should organize the older boys into a class 
for this purpose. The course need not occupy much 
time, and will certainly be most valuable. It should 
consist largely in oral instruction on American institu- 
tions, and should treat briefly the following three 
points: 

1. Our form of government compared with others 
now existing. 

2. The origin and growth of our political institutions. 

3. The organization and methods of local, state, and 
national government. 

The teacher should describe, in a general way, the 
various forms of government of the great European 
powers, and compare them with our own, showing 
where they are alike, where similar, and where and 
how they are different. Particular attention should be 
devoted to the English government, on which our own 
is so largely based. 

The origin and gradual growth of our political institu- 
tions should next be traced. The different forms of 
colonial government should receive brief treatment; the 



244 THE ECLECTIC HISTOR V. 

causes of the Revolution should be reviewed from the 
Declaration of Independence (page viii of the Appen- 
dix) ; and the changes in local government brought 
about by the Revolution noted. This should be fol- 
lowed by a short account of the rise and fall of the 
various political parties since the Revolution, with an 
outline of their principles. 

On taking up the subject of modern political institu- 
tions, commence with instruction in regard to the minor 
political divisions, first of your own state, and then of 
the United States generally. It will probably prove of 
interest to pupils to find that there are three distinct 
classes of these minor divisions which differ essentially 
in organization; namely, the ''town" system, which is 
confined to New England; the "county" system, which 
exists in all the southern states — except Virginia and 
North Carolina — and in Missouri, Nebraska, Nevada, 
Oregon, and California; and the "compromise," or 
combined county and township system, which exists in 
the remaining states of the Union. The compromise 
system has two forms, very nearly alike, one of which 
is seen in New York and the other in Pennsylvania. 
The states adopting this system are quite evenly divided 
between the two forms. 

Mr. S. A. Galpin, writing of these minor divisions for 
"Walker's Statistical Atlas of the United States," says: 
' ' The two which differ most widely from each other, 
not only in their general characteristics, but also in their 
location throughout the country, are the ' town ' system 
of New England and the ' county ' system of the south. 
Both of these were firmly rooted in their respective sec- 
tions before the Declaration of Independence, and 
passed through the successive transfers of sovereignty 



POLITICAL HISTORY. 245 

growing out of the war of the Revolution without any 
material change."* 

That system which prevails in your own state should 
receive full treatment ; that is, the class should be in- 
structed as to its minutest details. It will be sufficient 
to give a simple outline of the other systems, showing 
their chief points of difference from your own. 

Next in order comes the state government, which 
should also receive full treatment, including a study, or 
at least a reading, of the state constitution. 

Finally, the class should carefully study the constitu- 
tion of the United States, which is given on pages xi-xx 
of the Eclectic History, and should be examined thor- 
oughly as to their knowledge of the subject by means 
of the ** Questions" on the two succeeding pages. 



* For full and authentic information on these systems, the 
teacher is referred to the very interesting article, " The Minor 
Political Divisions of the United States," from which the above is 
an extract. 



PHYSIOLOGY 



XVIII. 

PHYSIOLOGY. 

THE importance of Physiology as a study in the 
common schools has grown, year by year, until it 
has attained its proper place, and is now considered a 
necessary part of education. It is only strange that it 
has not always been so considered ; for health is recog- 
nized by all as the prime requisite for a happy life, and 
we should therefore feel a moral obligation to instruct 
the young in the fundamental laws of health, and to 
give them such a knowledge of the human body that 
they can not violate any of these laws through igno- 
rance. 

The study of the text-book on physiology should be 
deferred until the pupils are old enough to understand 
and appreciate it ; but there are certain laws of health 
that should be taught to the entire school, and certain 
requisites demanded by those laws should receive the 
unremitting attention of every teacher. It is impossible 
to give a complete list of all the things that should and 
all that should not be done, but we mention a few of 
the most important matters which should receive atten- 
tion. 

''Cleanliness is indeed next to godliness," and it is 
the teacher's duty, not only to the individual, but to the 
school at large, to insist on cleanliness of person on the 
part of each member of the school. 

(249) 



250 THE ECLECTIC PHYSIOLOGY. 

Position. — When pupils are reciting, see that they 
stand squarely on both feet, with the heels together, 
shoulders back, and head erect. When at their desks, 
see that pupils do not lounge or sit in a cramped posi- 
tion. It is not necessary to act the martinet in this 
matter, but a little care will probably save many little 
children from strained eyes, weak lungs, round shoul- 
ders, and ungraceful habits. 

Voice and Lungs. — When children are reading or 
speaking, whether in ordinary recitation or in vocal ex- 
ercises, individually or in concert, see that they use 
their voices and lungs properly. The voice should be 
pitched in its natural conversational key, neither higher 
nor lower. The tones of the voice should always be 
distinct and resonant, but never lond. The manner of 
breathing is of the greatest importance, in vocal drills 
especially. Two points should be insisted upon : first, 
the breathing should be carried on as much as possible 
through the nose^ and not through the month ; second, 
the inspiration should distend the abdomen and the lozver 
part of the chest. The shouldei'S aftei 7ipper part of the 
chest should never be raised, in taking breathy tmder any 
ciixumstances. 

The celebrated Dr. Lennox Browne, of England, and 
Professor Emil Behnke, in their joint work, "Voice, 
Song, and Speech," lay much stress upon the impor- 
tance of correct breathing. We quote a few passages 
from their book which bear directly on school training 
in this particular : 

**The criterion of correct inspiration is an increase in 
the size of the abdomen and the lower part of the chest. 
Whoever draws in the abdomen and raises the upper 
part of the chest breathes wrongly. 



VOICE AND LUNGS. 25 1 | 

* ' While we urge the importance of nose breathing for 
full inflation, which is an act to be performed slowly, I 
steadily, and gradually, we do not deny that for rapid 1 
half-breaths occasionally demanded by singer or speaker, 
inspiration by the mouth is not only justifiable but un- 
avoidable. Habitual practice, however, in mouth-breath- 1 
ing can only lead to great discomfort, if not to actual j 
and direct mischief of the throat, windpipe, and chest; 1 
and such is very probable to result in the foggy and 
and cold-damp weather of spring, autumn, and winter. ' 
. . . It may be added that even asthma and other 
serious chest diseases are induced from this cause, and 
that purity and resonance of all vocal tone is diminished 
or destroyed in proportion to the amount of closure [of 
the nasal passages]. 

"It is not out of place here to mention that respira- 
tory exercises, and subsequently lessons in reading, re- 
citing, and singing are oftentimes of the greatest use in 
strengthening a weak chest ; and, indeed, it is not too j 
much to say in arresting consumption." 1 

Temperature and Light. — In regard to temperature 
and light, the teacher is largely governed by circum- 
stances beyond his control, but he can always make the 
best possible out of those circumstances. The school 
room ought to be thoroughly well ventilated and well 
lighted, free from drafts, and protected by proper cur- 
tains or shades from the direct glare of the sun. The 
heating apparatus should be such as to preserve a proper 
and uniform temperature. Every school room should 
be supplied with a thermometer, which should be hung 
in such a place as will best show the average tempera- 
ture of the room. It should not be hung more than 
four feet above the floor, near a window or heater, nor 



252 THE ECLECTIC PHYSIO LOG Y. 

on an outside wall. A thermometer properly hung 
should not be allowed to vary much from 70° Fahrenheit. 

If all these conditions can not be obtained, do the 
best you can to approximate to them. Do not allow a 
child to sit too near a register or a hot stove, nor in a 
draft. Neither should a child be allowed to work with 
the direct sunlight falling upon the paper before him, 
and dazzling his eyes. 

Wet Clothing. — Do not allow children to sit in 
school with wet feet or clothing. If they live too far 
away to be sent home to change their garments, they 
should at least be compelled to dry both feet and cloth- 
ing thoroughly before taking their seats. If this is im- 
possible, it is far better to send them home for the entire 
day than to have them run the risk of serious illness. 

Exercise in the open air and sunlight is a necessity 
to health, and the younger children especially need 
abundance of time for this kind of relaxation. The 
teacher, however, should regulate the exercises, if pos- 
sible, and warn the children of the dangers of violent 
exercise, both from over-exertion and from over-heating, 
and then suddenly cooling, the body. 

The entire school should be exercised in light gym- 
nastics at least once each day, and oftener if possible. 
Simple apparatus, such as wooden dumb-bells, rods, and 
rings, are desirable, but not essential. 

If it is possible to do so, employ a few minutes each 
day with military drill. The excellent effect of this 
species of drill is well seen in the superior carriage of 
soldiers and of boys who attend military schools. A 
very little study of any manual of tactics will give the 
teacher all the information necessary to conduct this 
drill, and the results will be found well worth the time 



THE TEA CHER'S PREPARA TION. 253 

and trouble bestowed. When the weather will permit, 
the drill should be conducted in the open air on the 
playground. 



The Eclectic Physiology. 

Physiology is usually a very interesting subject to 
pupils, and it is not a difficult subject to teach thor- 
oughly if it is properly treated. 

The Teacher's Preparation for conducting his class 
in their study is of supreme importance. The teacher 
needs to be fmniliar with the subject-matter of the 
science, and his knowledge must be fresh ; hence, he 
should study the subject as thoroughly as circumstances 
will permit, and not confine himself to the text-book 
used by the class ; and if he has made a thorough study 
of the subject in times past, but is somewhat "rusty" 
in his knowledge, he should review the entire subject 
thoroughly before entering upon class-work. 

In addition to this general knowledge of the subject, 
it is of great importance that the teacher should have a 
special knowledge of the text-book in use. He must 
understand the aims of the author, the scope of the 
work, and the plan of arrangement, including the order 
of topics and the dependence of the various parts of the 
treatise. Moreover, each day's lesson in turn should 
receive the teacher's careful attention in advance of at- 
tempting to conduct the recitation. 

The Purpose of the study of physiology is two-fold: 

1. To give the pupils valuable information. 

2. To discipline the minds of the pupils by encourag- 
ing the habit of sound and systematic thought. 

The value of the knowledge gained depends upon the 



254 THE ECLECTIC PHYSIOLOGY. 

impresslveness of the lessons in hygiene, whereby the 
pupils should learn to take proper care of their bodies, 
that they may most effectively maintain good health and 
avoid disease and weakness. 

The disciplinary value of physiology depends upon an 
intelligent and systematic method of instruction upon 
the part of the teacher, and a corresponding method of 
study on the part of the pupils. 

The Plan of instruction should conform to the two 
purposes just stated. The hygienic features of the 
science are of paramount importance, and therefore 
demand the greatest share of attention. Only so much 
of anatomy and physiology need be learned as will 
form a basis for intelligent instruction in hygiene. In 
other words, the pupils are not to be taught as if 
they were to become surgeons and physicians, but in 
such manner as will best prepare them for healthful, 
every-day life. 

Errors to be Avoided. — The teacher who sees clearly 
from the beginning the chief importance of hygiene, 
will be likely to avoid three great errors that are quite 
common with teachers of physiology : 

1. Giving too much attention to the details of 
anatomy. 

2. Making too little practical application of the 
science to the common affairs of life. 

3. Teaching facts in a disconnected and unrelated 
manner. 

Aids. — In the study of the human body, the pupil 
needs to be thoroughly impressed with the fact that he 
is studying about ]iis oivii body, — not some body repre- 
sented in the pictures of his book, or on the charts, but 
his own, living, throbbing body. To secure this great 



AIDS, 255 

end, the teacher must constantly require the pupils to 
refer to their own vital processes. They can examine 
the skin, can notice the breathing, can feel the pulse 
and heart beat, can examine the eye, and can feel the 
bones and muscles. They know, also, what hunger and 
thirst are, what food is, what pain and sickness are, 
what each special sense gives them. Let the children 
commence work by considering such facts concerning 
their own bodies, and their own vital processes ; then 
the lessons of hygiene which they learn will come very 
close to them, and they will be likely to apply such 
lessons to their actual experiences. 

To aid in creating an interest in the mechanism of 
the human body, and in giving a clear idea of it, the 
teacher should use good charts, from which the pupils 
may more readily see the structure and relation of the 
parts. Plain, simple charts are valuable aids, because, 
on the one hand, we can not perform dissection in the 
school room ; while, on the other, purely verbal descrip- 
tions are usually feeble as compared with pictorial rep- 
resentations. 

In the absence of charts, the teacher, by some effort 
and practice, may draw many figures upon the black- 
board, illustrating the parts of the body. The pupils 
will usually be much interested in making such draw- 
ings for themselves. 

In addition to what has already been suggested, the 
teacher may obtain interesting material from slaughtered 
animals with which to show the character and arrange- 
ment of the similar parts of the human body. A hog's 
heart resembles the human heart very closely. By cut- 
ting open the hog's heart, the structure and arrangement 
of the human heart may be studied objectively. In like 



256 



THE ECLECTIC PHYSIOLOGY. 



manner, the teacher may show the class the structure 
of the lungs, liver, kidneys, intestines, bones, joints, 
eyes, etc., etc. The use of such material for illustra- 
tion intensifies the interest and impresses the mind far 
more forcibly than either verbal or pictorial representa- 
tions. 

Time of Recitations. — It would be well for the class 
in physiology to recite daily. A short lesson each day 
is to be preferred to longer lessons on alternate days. 
In a mixed school, in which the teacher has many 
classes each day, the lesson in physiology need not 
exceed twenty-five minutes in length. 

Proper Division into Lessons. — A class of ordinary 
pupils can complete the Eclectic Physiology in one 
school year of five or six months. A strong class 
might possibly complete the work in sixteen weeks or 
less. Nevertheless, it is urged that the teacher aim at 
thoroughness rather than rapidity. 

Seventy-five lessons may be considered the average 
number for a strong class, and certainly no fewer than 
fifty lessons should be attempted under any circum- 
stances. If fifty lessons are all that can possibly be 
given the subject, the following division may prove of 
value to the teacher in assigning lessons: 



Introduction 










Two lessons. 


Bones 










Three lessons. 


Muscles 










Three lessojis. 


Skin 










Two lessons. 


Food 










Two lessons. 


Digestion 










Three lessons. 


Circulation . 










Five lesso7is. 


Respiration 










Five lessons. 


Excretion 










Two lessons. 


General Nerv 


ous S 


ysten 


Ll 




Five lessons. 



SUBDIVISION OF TOPICS. 257 



Touch, Taste, and Smell 

Sight .... 

Hearing 

Sanitary Science . 

Effects of Alcohol 

Reviews and Examinations, 



Three lessons. 
Three lessons. 
Three lessons. 
Two lessons. 
Two lessons. 
Five lessons. 



Total, Fifty Lessons. 

If seventy-five lessons can be given, the teacher 
should divide the subjects proportionately to the above 
list. 

The teacher should decide before commencing work 
exactly how many lessons he proposes to give, make 
out his schedule accordingly, and then hold firmly to 
his plan. If he adopt this method, he will find that the 
pupils will complete the subject within the allotted time, 
and that, at the same time, the topics in the latter part 
of the text will receive as full consideration as those 
treated in the beginning. If this method be not 
adopted, there is danger of dwelling too long on certain 
portions of the text at the expense of others. 

Subdivisions of Topics. — After the teacher has ex- 
amined the text-book carefully, and has decided both as 
to the length of time that is to be given to the study, 
and as to the number of lessons into which the subject 
is to be divided, as above suggested, he must next de- 
termine definitely the exact limits of the subdivisions to 
be made, else the lesssons designed to treat of any divi- 
sion of the text may not cover the ground they are 
intended to include. To illustrate this point, the five 
lessons assigned for the study of circulation must divide 
that subject properly. It is supposed that the class has 
just studied the subject of food and the process of 

digestion. As the food makes blood, it would seem 
E. M.— 22. 



258 THE ECLECTIC PHYSIOLOGY. 

proper that the class should take for its first lesson in 
circulation the subject of blood. Certain facts are to be 
learned about the blood : for example, what the blood 
is, its importance, its uses, its composition, etc. To 
learn these facts, the pupils must study articles 66 to 71 
inclusive, and must read carefully notes i, 2, and 3. 
The second lesson should include tJie organs of circula- 
tion. These are treated of in articles 72 to jy inclusive, 
and notes 4 and 5. The third lesson should t7'ace the 
cijxiilation, as taught in articles y^ to 81 inclusive, and 
note 6. The fourth lesson should include the remaining 
articles of the chapter, and the teacher should pay par- 
ticular attention to the hygiene of circulation. The 
fifth lesson should review and unify the whole chapter. 

In a similar manner the teacher should divide each 
chapter of the book into lessons of appropriate length, 
taking carefully into consideration both the time allotted 
to a recitation and the total number of lessons that must 
include the entire subject. 

Advantages of System. — Let us repeat that all this 
planning should be closely studied by the teacher before 
commencing work at all. If the suggestion be heeded, 
the teacher will find that this definite planning of work 
will materially add to the efficiency of his instruction in 
physiology. It aims to accomplish the following ex- 
cellent results : 

1. The orderly presentation of matter. 

2. The due division of time among the sev.eral parts 
of the subject. 

3. Systematic and intelligent study on the part of the 
pupils. 

4. Topical and methodical recitation of the lessons 
thus learned. 



ADVANTAGES OF SYSTEM. 259 

Lead pupils to study with the idea of orderly arrange- 
ment of topics constantly before the mind. If the 
teacher requires pupils to 7rcite in an orderly manner, 
they will naturally learn to prepare their work in that 
way. 

Bear constantly in mind that the two important aims 
in the study of physiology are to have the pupils 
acquire a valuable knowledge of the subject, and to 
train the mind in systematic and forcible action. Both 
of these aims are to be attained most readily by the 
classified form of study and recitation. 

But beware of bare outlines. The danger in the use 
of outlines in class-work is that the teacher may use the 
outline merely as a skeleton, and not put upon it the 
necessary flesh in which the skeleton should be im- 
bedded. Classification learned simply as such is of very 
little use, and teachers should guard carefully against 
teaching in this way. 

On the Conduct of Recitations. — Let us suppose 
that the teacher has assigned a lesson in physiology, and 
the time has arrived for the recitation. It is supposed 
that the pupils have been definitely informed as to what 
to study, and that they know what is to be the plan of 
recitation. It is not necessary, therefore, for the teacher 
to ask where the lesson is, and to proceed to ask question 
after question, to which the pupils give answers. He 
may direct one of the pupils to state the lesson, and to 
proceed to recite the first portion of it. At a suitable 
time the teacher should excuse the first pupil, and ask 
another to continue the recitation. Passing from one to 
another in the class, the lesson is soon recited. The 
omissions made by those pupils who have recited may 
now be supplied by other pupils. Criticisms may be 



260 THE ECLECTIC PHYSIOLOGY. 

made on the recitations by both pupils and teacher. 
Questions may be asked to still farther test the pupils 
in their understanding of the matter recited. 

Specimens may be examined illustrating the subject 
under consideration. Recitations may be made from the 
charts, in which case the pupils point out the represen- 
tation of the parts described. The pupils may ask ques- 
tions about any points of particular interest to them, or 
about such parts as they do not well understand. The 
notes which refer to certain parts of the lesson may be 
read aloud. The pupils may write out an outline of the 
lesson upon the blackboard. 

The connection between the present lesson and the 
new lesson that is to be assigned, may be stated by the 
teacher, and he may call special attention to important 
and interesting features of the new lesson. Whatever 
will tend to deepen the interest of the pupils in the 
study of the subject should be done. Encourage the 
pupils to converse and to ask questions about the sub- 
jects studied. 

To illustrate still more fully, suppose the class is just 
beginning the subject of respiration, and that the lesson 
is articles 85, ^6, and 87. Here are certain important 
points !o be brought out in the recitation : The constant 
demand for air by all living things. The air must enter 
the blood and be circulated, — no other want is more 
urgent. How plants breathe. How fishes get '' air. 
How the higher animals breathe. What respiration is. 
What the uses of the air are. What the general plan 
of respiration is. How the air enters the blood. 

The ten points just enumerated cover the matter in- 
cluded in the articles, and might form the topics for the 
recitations to be made by the several pupils of the class. 



REGIT A riONS. 26 1 

The teacher might ask such questions as the following 
to test any member of the class : What are the pur- 
poses of respiration? How does the need of air com- 
pare with the want of food? How do trees breathe? 
How do water animals breathe? How do land animals 
breathe? How do we breathe? Why do all Hving 
things need air? 

Let it be supposed that the class is to recite the first 
lesson of Chapter XIV, — ''Sight." The topics in this 
lesson would include the matter contained in articles 
I35> 136, 137, 138. The chief topics are as follows: 
Sight, what it is. What we learn from the sense of 
sight. The eyes, what are they? Description of the 
eyes. The protecting parts of the eyes. Tears, what 
are they? Their origin and purpose. How the eye- 
balls are supported. How they are moved. 

When the pupils have recited these topics, the teacher 
may test them by many questions, such as the follow- 
ing: What is it that comes into the eye from the 
objects we see ? What do we learn by seeing any 
thing? Why are the eyes placed as they are? How 
do the orbits protect the eyes? Of what use are the 
brows and lashes ? What glands are connected with the 
eyes? Whence do the tears come? How are the eye- 
balls kept clean ? How do we turn the eyes ? 

In connection with this lesson and the one that fol- 
lows it, the teacher should dissect an eye for the class, 
as described in note i. Each pupil may learn much 
by looking at the eye of another person, and by 
touching and examining his own eye. If the teacher 
can secure the use of a convex lens, he may perform 
many interesting experiments with it that will show the 
action of the lens of the eye. 



262 THE ECLECTIC PHYSIOLOGY. 

It only remains to say that while physiology is usually 
a very interesting study to children, yet no subject can 
be made very interesting to a class by a teacher who is 
himself devoid of interest in that subject. On the other 
hand, the more real interest the teacher can put into 
the work, the more enthusiastic will his class be in the 
study of the subject. The more impressive the lessons 
of hygiene are, the more valuable will the information 
be to the pupils. 



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